Mechanics of Micro Structures

Chang Liu
Micro Actuators, Sensors, Systems Group
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Single crystal silicon and wafers

To use Si as a substrate material, it should be pure Si in a single crystal form

The Czochralski (CZ) method: A seed crystal is attached at the tip of a puller, which
slowly pulls up to form a larger crystal
100 mm (4 in) diameter x 500 mm thick
150 mm (6 in) diameter x 750 mm thick
200 mm (8 in) diameter x 1000 mm thick

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Miller indices
A popular method of designating crystal planes (hkm) and orientations
<hkm>
Identify the axial intercepts
Take reciprocal
Clear fractions (not taking lowest integers)
Enclose the number with ( ) : no comma
<hkm> designate the direction normal to the plane (hkm)
(100), (110), (111)

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Stress and Strain

Definition of Stress and Strain

The normal stress (Pa, N/m2)
F

A

The strain
L L0 L

L0 L0
Poissons ratio
y z

x x

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Hookes Law
E

E: Modulus of Elasticity, Youngs Modulus

The shear stress F

A

The shear strain

X
L

The shear modulus of elasticity

G

The relationship
E
G
21

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 General Relation Between Tensile Stress and Strain

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 The behavior of brittle materials
(Si) and soft rubber used
extensively in MEMS
A material is strong if it has high
yield strength or ultimate strength.
Si is even stronger than stainless
steel
Ductility is a measure of the degree
of plastic deformation that has been
sustained at the point of fracture
Toughness is a mechanical measure
of the materials ability to absorb
energy up to fracture (strength +
ductility)
Resilience is the capacity of a
material to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically, then to have
this energy recovered upon
unloading
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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Mechanical Properties of Si and Related Thin Films

(,
Growth ), ,

The fracture strength is size dependent; it is 23-28 times larger
than that of a millimeter-scale sample
Hall Petch equation;
y 0 Kd 1/ 2
For single crystal silicon, Youngs modulus is a function of the
crystal orientaiton
For plysilicon thin films, it depends on the process condition
(differ from Lab. to Lab.)

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 General Stress-Strain Relations

xx , yy , zz T1 , T2 , T3
yz , xz , xy T4 , T5 , T6

T1 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 1

T C C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 2 yz , xz , xy T4 , T5 , T6
2 21
T3 C31 C32 C33 C34 C35 C36 3

T4 C41 C42 C43 C44 C45 C46 4
T5 C51 C52 C53 C54 C55 C56 5

T6 C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 C66 6

T C C: stiffness matrix
ST S: compliance matrix 1.66 0.64 0.64 0 0 0
0.64 1.66 0.64 0 0 0

For many materials of interest to 0.64 0.64 1.66 0 0 0 11
CSi,100 10 Pa
MEMS, the stiffness can be 0 0 0 0.8 0 0
simplified 0 0 0 0 0.8 0

0 0 0 0 0 0.8

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Flexural Beam Bending

Types of Beams; Fig. 3.15

Possible Boundary Conditions

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Longitudinal Strain Under Pure Bending

Pure Bending; The moment is constant throughout the beam

My

EI
Mt
max
2 EI

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Deflection of Beams
d2y
EI 2 M ( x) Appendix B
dx

Fl 2 Fl 3
max , d max
2 EI 3EI

Fl 3
d max
12 EI

Fl 3
d max
192EI

Ml Ml 2
max , d max
EI 2 EI

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Finding the Spring Constant

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UIUC
 Calculate spring constant

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Vertical Translational Plates

12 EI Ewt 3
k 3 3
l l 12 EI Ewt 3
k 3
l3 l

Ewt 3
(a)k 2 3
l

Ewt 3
(b)k 4 3
l

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Torsional Deflections

Pure Torsion; Every cross section of the bar is identical

Tr0
max
J

1
J r04
2

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Intrinsic Stress

Many thin film materials experience internal stress even when

they are under room temperature and zero external loading
conditions
In many cases related to MEMS structures, the intrinsic stress
results from the temperature difference during deposition and
use

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Intrinsic Stress

The flatness of the membrane is

guaranteed when the membrane
material is under tensile stress

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Intrinsic Stress

There are three strategies for minimizing undesirable intrinsic

bending
Use materials that inherently have zero or very low intrinsic stress
For materials whose intrinsic stress depends on material processing
parameters, fine tune the stress by calibrating and controlling
deposition conditions
Use multiple-layered structures to compensate for stress-induced
bending

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Mechanical Variables of Concern
Force constant Importance of resonant freq.
flexibility of a given device Limits the actuation speed
Mechanical resonant frequency lower energy consumption at Fr
response speed of device
Hookes law applied to DC
driving

Fmechanical

Felectric
Km

Fmechanical K m x

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Types of Electrical-Mechanical Analysis

Given dimensions and materials of electrostatic structure, find

force constant of the suspension
structure displacement prior to pull-in
value of pull-in voltage
Given the range of desired applied voltage and the desired
displacement, find
dimensions of a structure
layout of a structure
materials of a structure
Given the desired mechanical parameters including force
constants and resonant frequency, find
dimensions
materials
layout design
quasistatic displacement

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Analysis of Mechanical Force Constants
Concentrate on cantilever
beam (micro spring boards) Fixed-free
Three types of most relevant
boundary conditions
free: max. degrees of
freedom
fixed: rotation and
translation both restricted Two fixed-
guided: rotation restricted. guided beams
Beams with various
combination of boundary
conditions
fixed-free, one-end-fixed
beam
fixed-fixed beam
fixed-guided beam
Four fixed-guided beams

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Examples

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Boundary Conditions

Six degrees of freedom: three axis translation, three axis rotation

Fixed B.C.
no translation, no rotation

Free B.C.
capable of translation AND rotation

Guided B.C.
capable of translation BUT NOT rotation

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 A Clamped-Clamped Beam

Fixed-guided

Fixed-guided

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 A Clamped-Free Beam

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 One-end Supported, Clamped-Free Beams

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Fixed-Free Beam by Sacrificial Etching

Right anchor is fixed because its rotation is completely

restricted.
Left anchor is free because it can translate as well as rotate.
Consider the beam only moves in 2D plane (paper plane). No
out-of-plane translation or rotation is encountered.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Force Constants for Fixed-Free Beams
Dimensions
length, width, thickness
unit in mm.
Materials
Youngs modulus, E
Unit in Pa, or N/m2.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Modulus of Elasticity
Names
Youngs modulus F
Elastic modulus x
Definition E A
x L
L
Values of E for various materials can be found in notes, text
books, MEMS clearing house, etc.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Large Displacement vs. Small Displacement
Small displacement Large deformation
end displacement less than 10- needs finite element computer-
20 times the thickness. aided simulation to solve
Used somewhat loosely precisely.
because of the difficulty to In limited cases exact
invoke large-deformation analytical solutions can be
analysis. found.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Force Constants for Fixed-Free Beams

Moment of inertia I (unit: m4)

I= wt
3
for rectangular cross section
12
Fl 2
Maximum angular displacement
2 EI
Fl 3
Maximum vertical displacement under F is
3EI
F 3EI Ewt 3
Therefore, the equivalent force constant is km
Fl 3
3
l 4l 3
3EI

Formula for 1st order resonant frequency 3.52 EIg

where is the beam weight per unit length. 2 l 4

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 Zig-Zag Beams
Used to pack more L into a given footprint area on chip to
reduce the spring constant without sacrificing large chip space.

Saves chip
real-estate

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UIUC
 An Example

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UIUC
 Order of Resonance

1st order: one node where the

gradient of the beam shape is
zero;
also called fundamental mode.
With lowest resonance
frequency.
2nd order: 2 nodes where the
gradient of the beam shape is
zero;
3nd order: 3 nodes.
Frequency increases as the order
number goes up.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Resonant frequency of typical spring-mass system

Self-mass or concentrated mass being m

The resonant frequency is

1 k
2 m

Check consistency of units.

High force constant (stiff spring) leads to high

resonant frequency.
Low mass (low inertia) leads to high resonant
frequency.
To satisfy both high K and high resonant
frequency, m must be low.
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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Quality Factor

If the distance between two half-power points is df, and the

resonance frequency if fr, then
Q=fr/df
Q=total energy stored in system/energy loss per unit cycle
Source of mechanical energy loss
crystal domain friction
direct coupling of energy to surroundings
distrubance and friction with surrounding air
example: squeezed film damping between two parallel plate
capacitors
requirement for holes: (1) to reduce squeezed film damping; (2)
facilitate sacrificial layer etching (to be discussed later in detail).
Source of electrical energy loss
resistance ohmic heating
electrical radiation

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Electrostatic Sensors and Actuators

Chang Liu

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Outline

Basic Principles
capacitance formula
capacitance configuration
Applications examples
sensors
actuators
Analysis of electrostatic actuator
second order effect - pull in effect
Application examples and detailed analysis

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Basic Principles
Sensing
capacitance between moving and fixed plates change as
distance and position is changed
media is replaced
Actuation
electrostatic force (attraction) between moving and fixed plates as
a voltage is applied between them.

Two major configurations

parallel plate capacitor (out of plane) Interdigitated finger configuration
interdigitated fingers - IDT (in plane)

A d

Parallel plate configuration

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UIUC
 Examples

Parallel Plate Capacitor

Comb Drive Capacitor

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Parallel Plate Capacitor

A d

Fringe electric field

(ignored in first order Q
analysis) C
V
E Q / A
Q A
C
Q
d d
A

Equations without considering fringe electric field.

A note on fringe electric field: The fringe field is frequently
ignored in first-order analysis. It is nonetheless important. Its
effect can be captured accurately in finite element simulation tools.
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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Fabrication Methods
Surface micromachining
Wafer bonding
3D assembly

Flip and
bond

Movable
vertical plate

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Forces of Capacitor Actuators

1 1Q 2
Stored energy U CV 2

2 2 C

Force is derivative of energy with F U 1 C V 2

respect to pertinent dimensional d 2 d

variable
Plug in the expression for capacitor C Q A
Q d
d
A
U 1 A 1 CV 2
We arrive at the expression for force F V 2

d 2d 2
2 d

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Relative Merits of Capacitor Actuators
Pros
Nearly universal sensing and
actuation; no need for special
materials.
Low power. Actuation driven
by voltage, not current.
High speed. Use charging and
discharging, therefore realizing
full mechanical response speed.
Chang Liu
Cons
Force and distance inversely
scaled - to obtain larger force,
the distance must be small.
In some applications,
vulnerable to particles as the
spacing is small - needs
packaging.
Vulnerable to sticking
phenomenon due to molecular
forces.
Occasionally, sacrificial release.
Efficient and clean removal of
sacrificial materials.
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 Capacitive
Accelerometer

Proof mass area 1x0.6 mm2,

and 5 mm thick.
Net capacitance 150fF
External IC signal processing
circuits

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Analysis of Electrostatic Actuator

What happens to a parallel plate capacitor when the

applied voltage is gradually increased?

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 An Equivalent Electromechanical Model
Fmechanical
x
If top plate
moves down- Felectric Note: direction
ward, x<0. Km definition of
variables

This diagram depicts a parallel plate capacitor at equilibrium

position. The mechanical restoring spring with spring constant
Km (unit: N/m) is associated with the suspension of the top
plate.
According to Hookes law, Fmechanical Km x
At equilibrium, the two forces, electrical force and mechanical
restoring force, must be equal. Less the plate would move under
Newtons first law.
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Chang Liu Gravity is generally ignored. UIUC
 Electrical And Mechanical Forces
If the right-hand plate moves
closer to the fixed one, the magnitude
of mechanical force increases linearly.

Equilibrium:
If a constant voltage, V1, is applied
|electric force|=|mechanical force|
in between two plates, the electric force
changes as a function of distance. The
closer the two plates, the large the
force.

X0
x Equilibrium
position

Km

fixed

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Electrical And Mechanical Forces

V3

V2 V3>V2>V1
Equilibrium:
|electric force|=|mechanical force| V1

X0

Km

X0+x1
fixed
X0+x2

X0+x3

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Force Balance Equation at Given Applied Voltage V

AV 2 The linear curve

km x represents the
2 x x0
2
magnitude of
mechanical restoring
force as a function of
x.
Each curve in the
family represents
magnitude of electric
force as a function of
V increases spacing (x0+x).

km Note that x<0. The

origin of x=0 is the
dashed line.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Determining Equilibrium Position Graphically

At each specific applied voltage, the equilibrium position can be

determined by the intersection of the linear line and the curved
line.
For certain cases, two equilibrium positions are possible.
However, as the plate moves from top to bottom, the first
equilibrium position is typically assumed.

Note that one curve intersects the linear line only at one point.
As voltage increases, the curve would have no equilibrium
position.

This transition voltage is called pull-in voltage.

The fact that at certain voltage, no equilibrium position can be
found, is called pull-in effect.

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UIUC
 Pull-In Effect

As the voltage bias increases from zero across a pair of parallel

plates, the distance between such plates would decrease until
they reach 2/3 of the original spacing, at which point the two
plates would be suddenly snapped into contact.

This behavior is called the pull-in effect.

A.k.a. snap in

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Chang Liu
UIUC
A threshold point VPI

Equilibrium: X=-x0/3
|electric force|=|mechanical force|

X0

Km

Positive
fixed feedback
-snap, pull in

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Mathematical Determination of Pull-in Voltage
Step 1 - Defining Electrical Force Constant

Lets define the tangent of the electric force term. It is called

electrical force constant, Ke.
F CV 2
ke ke 2
x d

When voltage is below the pull-in voltage, the magnitude of Ke

and Km are not equal at equilibrium.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Review of Equations Related To Parallel Plate

The electrostatic force is E 1 A 2 1 CV 2

F V
d 2d 2
2 d

The electric force constant is

1 A 2 A V 2 V2
K e (2) 3 V 2
C 2
2 d d d d

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Mathematical Determination of Pull-in Voltage
Step 2 - Pull-in Condition
At the pull-in voltage, there is only one intersection between |Fe|
and |Fm| curves.
At the intersection, the gradient are the same, i.e. the two curves
intersect with same tangent.
ke k m
This is on top of the condition that the magnitude of Fm and Fe
are equal.
Force balance yields V 2 k x ( x x ) 2
2km x( x x0 ) Eq.(*)
2 m 0

A C
2
CV
Plug in expression of V2 into the expression for Ke, ke 2
we get d
CV 2 2k m x
ke
( x x0 ) 2 ( x xo )
This yield the position for the pull-in condition, x=-x0/3.
Irrespective of the magnitude of km.
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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Mathematical Determination of Pull-in Voltage
Step 3 - Pull-in Voltage Calculation

Plug in the position of pull-in

into Eq. * on previous page, we
get the voltage at pull-in as
2
4 x
V p2 0 k m
9C
At pull in, C=1.5 Co
A
Thus, (2 /3)d

2 x0 km
Vp .
3 1.5C0

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Implications of Pull-in Effect

For electrostatic actuator, it is impossible to control the

displacement through the full gap. Only 1/3 of gap distance can
be moved reliably.

Electrostatic micro mirros

reduced range of reliable position tuning
Electrostatic tunable capacitor
reduced range of tuning and reduced tuning range
Tuning distance less than 1/3, tuning capacitance less than 50%.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Counteracting Pull-In Effect
Leveraged Bending for Full Gap Positioning

E. Hung, S. Senturia, Leveraged bending for full gap

positioning with electrostatic actuation, Sensors and Actuators
Workshop, Hilton Head Island, p. 83, 2000.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Counteracting Pull-in Effect: Variable Gap Capacitor
Existing Tunable Capacitor
Tuning range: 88%
Counter
Suspension
capacitor plate
(with parasitic capacitance)
spring
d0

Actuation Capacitor Actuation

electrode plate electrode NEW DESIGN
Variable Gap Variable Capacitor
Suspension Counter
spring capacitor
<(1/3)d0
d0 plate

Actuation Capacitor Actuation

electrode plate electrode

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Example
A parallel plate capacitor
suspended by two fixed-fixed
cantilever beams, each with
length, width and thickness
denoted l, w and t, respectively.
The material is made of
polysilicon, with a Youngs
modulus of 120GPa.
L=400 mm, w=10 mm, and t=1
mm.
The gap x0 between two plates
is 2 mm.
The area is 400 mm by 400 mm.
Calculate the amount of vertical
displacement when a voltage of
0.4 volts is applied.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Step 1: Find mechanical force constants

Calculate force constant of one beam first

use model of left end guided, right end fixed.
3
Under force F, the max deflection is d Fl
The force constant is therefore 12 EI

F 12EI Ewt 3 120 109 10 106 (1106 )3

Km 3 3 0.01875N / m
d l l (400 106 )3

This is a relatively soft spring.

Note the spring constant is stiffer than fixed-free beams.

Total force constant encountered by the parallel plate is

K m 0.0375 N / m

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Chang Liu
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 Step 2: Find out the Pull-in Voltage

Find out pull-in voltage and compare with the applied voltage.
First, find the static capacitance value Co
8.85 1012 ( F / m) (400 106 ) 2
C0 6
7.083 1013 F
2 10

Find the pull-in voltage value

2 x0 km 2 2 106 0.0375
Vp 13
0.25(volts)
3 1.5C0 3 1.5 7.083 10

When the applied voltage is 0.4 volt, the beam has been pulled-
in. The displacement is therefore 2 mm.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 What if the applied voltage is 0.2 V?
Not sufficient to pull-in
Deformation can be solved by solving the following equation
2k m x( x x0 ) 2 2km x( x x0 )
V
2

A C
v 2A
or x 2 x0 x x x
3 2 2
0 0
2k m
x 3 4 10 6 x 2 4 10 12 x 7.552 10 19 0

How to solve it?

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Chang Liu
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 Solving Third Order Equation ...
To solve x 3 ax 2 bx c 0

a2 a ab
Apply y x a / 3 p b, q 2( ) 3 c
3 3 3
Use the following definition 3 2
p q
Q
3 2
q q
A3 Q,B 3 Q
2 2
The only real solution is

y A B
a
x A B
3

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Calculator A Simple Way Out.

Use HP calculator,
x1=-2.45x10-7 mm
x2=-1.2x10-6 mm
x3=-2.5x10-6 mm

Accept the first answer because the other two are out side of
pull-in range.

If V=0.248 Volts, the displacement is -0.54 mm.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Deformable Mirrors for Adaptive Optics
2 mm surface normal stroke
for a 300 mm square mirror, the displacement is 1.5 micron at
approximately 120 V applied voltage
T. Bifano, R. Mali, Boston University
(http://www.bu.edu/mfg/faculty/homepages/bifano.html)

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 MASS
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UIUC
 MASS
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UIUC
 BU Adaptive Micro Mirrors

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UIUC
 Optical Micro Switches

Texas Instrument DLP Torsional parallel plate

capacitor support
Two stable positions (+/-
10 degrees with respect
to rest)
All aluminum structure
No process steps entails
temperature above 300-
350 oC.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Digital Light Mirror Pixels

Mirrors are on 17 mm
center-to-center spacing

Gaps are 1.0 mm nominal

Mirror transit time is

<20 ms from state to state

Tilt Angles are minute at

10 degrees

Four mirrors equal the

width of a human hair

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Digital Micromirror Device (DMD)

Mirror Mirror
-10 deg +10 deg

Hinge
CMOS
Yoke Substrate

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Perspective View of Lateral Comb Drive

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Chang Liu
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 Lateral Comb Drive Actuators
Total capacitance is
proportional to the overlap
length and depth of the
fingers, and inversely
proportional to the distance.

Pros:
Frequently used in
actuators for its relatively
long achievable driving
2 0t ( x x0 ) distance.
Ctot N [ cp ] Cons
d
force output is a function
N 0 t 2 of finger thickness. The
F x0
V
d thicker the fingers, the
large force it will be.
N=4 in above diagram. Relatively large footprint.
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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Transverse Comb Drive Devices
Direction of finger movement is orthogonal to the direction of
fingers.
Pros: Frequently used for sensing for the sensitivity and ease of
fabrication
Cons: not used as actuator because of the physical limit of
distance.

0lt
Csl N ( Cf )
x0 x
0lt
Csr N ( Cf )
x0 x

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Devices Based on Transverse Comb Drive

Analog Device ADXL accelerometer

A movable mass supported by cantilever beams move in response to
acceleration in one specific direction.
Relevant to device performance
sidewall vertical profile
off-axis movement compensation
temperature sensitivity.
* p 234-236.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Sandia Electrostatically driven gears
- translating linear motion into continuous rotary motion

Lateral comb drive banks

Mechanical
springs

Gear train
Optical shutter

http://www.mdl.sandia.gov/mic MASS
Chang Liu
romachine/images11.html UIUC
Sandia Gears Use five layer
polysilicon to increase
the thickness t in lateral
comb drive actuators.

Mechanical springs

Position
limiter

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UIUC
 More Sophisticated Micro Gears

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UIUC
 Actuators that Use Fringe Electric Field - Rotary
Motor

Three phase electrostatic actuator.

Arrows indicate electric field and electrostatic force. The tangential
components cause the motor to rotate.

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Three Phase Motor Operation Principle

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UIUC
 Starting Position -> Apply voltage to group A
electrodes

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UIUC
 Motor tooth aligned to A -> Apply voltage to Group
C electrodes

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 Motor tooth aligned to C -> Apply voltage to Group
B electrodes

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Motor tooth aligned to B -> Apply voltage to Group
A electrodes

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Motor tooth aligned to A -> Apply voltage to Group
C electrodes

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UIUC
 Example of High Aspect Ratio Structures

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UIUC
 Some variations

Large angle
Long distance
Low voltage
Linear movement

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UIUC
 1x4 Optical Switch

John Grade and Hal Jerman, A large deflection electrostatic actuator for
optical switching applications, IEEE S&A Workshop, 2000, p. 97.
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UIUC
 Actuators that Use Fringe Field - Micro Mirrors
with Large Displacement Angle

Torsional mechanical spring

R. Conant, A flat high freq scanning micromirror, IEEE Sen &Act MASS
Chang Liu
Workshop, Hilton Head Island, 2000. UIUC
 Curled Hinge Comb Drives

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Chang Liu
UIUC
 Other Parallel Plate Capacitor - Scratch Drive
Actuator
Mechanism for realizing
continuous long range
movement.

Scratch drive invented by H. Fujita of Tokyo University.

MASS
Chang Liu The motor shown above was made by U. of Colorado, Victor Bright. UIUC