Persamaan untuk saluran

persegipanjang, trapezoidal, dan

lingkaran
 Fluid Mechanics

The Bernoulli Equation

 FLUID DYNAMICS
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

The laws of Statics that we have learned cannot solve

Dynamic Problems. There is no way to solve for the flow
rate, or Q. Therefore, we need a new dynamic approach
to Fluid Mechanics.
 The Bernoulli Equation
By assuming that fluid motion is governed only by pressure and
gravity forces, applying Newtons second law, F = ma, leads us to
the Bernoulli Equation.

P/g + V2/2g + z = constant along a streamline

(P=pressure g =specific weight V=velocity g=gravity z=elevation)

A streamline is the path of one particle of water. Therefore, at any two

points along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation can be applied and,
using a set of engineering assumptions, unknown flows and pressures
can easily be solved for.
The Bernoulli Equation (unit of L)
At any two points on a streamline:

P1/g + V12/2g + z1 = P2/g + V22/2g + z2

1
2
 A Simple Bernoulli Example

V2
Z
g = gair

Determine the difference in pressure between points 1 and 2

Assume a coordinate system fixed to the bike (from this system,
the bicycle is stationary, and the world moves past it). Therefore,
the air is moving at the speed of the bicycle. Thus, V2 = Velocity of
the Biker
Hint: Point 1 is called a stagnation point, because the air particle
along that streamline, when it hits the bikers face, has a zero
velocity (see next slide)
 Stagnation Points

On any body in a flowing fluid, there is a stagnation point. Some fluid

flows over and some under the body. The dividing line (the stagnation
streamline) terminates at the stagnation point. The Velocity decreases
as the fluid approaches the stagnation point. The pressure at the
stagnation point is the pressure obtained when a flowing fluid is
decelerated to zero speed by a frictionless process
 Apply Bernoulli from 1 to 2

V2
Z
g = gair

Point 1 = Point 2
P1/gair + V12/2g + z1 = P2/gair + V22/2g + z2
Knowing the z1 = z2 and that V1= 0, we can simplify
the equation
P1/gair = P2/gair + V22/2g
P1 P2 = ( V22/2g ) gair
 A Simple Bernoulli Example

If Lance Armstrong is traveling at 20 ft/s, what pressure

does he feel on his face if the gair= .0765 lbs/ft3?

We can assume P2 = 0 because it is only atmospheric pressure

P1 = ( V22/2g )(gair) = P1 = ((20 ft/s)2/(2(32.2 ft/s2)) x .0765 lbs/ft3
P1 =.475 lbs/ft2
Converting to lbs/in2 (psi)
P1 = .0033 psi (gage pressure)
If the bikers face has a surface area of 60 inches
He feels a force of .0033 x 60 = .198 lbs
 Bernoulli Assumptions
There are three main variables in the Bernoulli Equation
Pressure Velocity Elevation
To simplify problems, assumptions are often made to
eliminate one or more variables

Key Assumption # 1
Velocity = 0
Imagine a swimming pool with a small 1 cm hole on the floor of
the pool. If you apply the Bernoulli equation at the surface, and
at the hole, we assume that the volume exiting through the hole
is trivial compared to the total volume of the pool, and therefore
the Velocity of a water particle at the surface can be assumed to
be zero
 Bernoulli Assumptions

Key Assumption # 2
Pressure = 0
Whenever the only pressure acting on a point is the
standard atmospheric pressure, then the pressure at that
point can be assumed to be zero because every point in
the system is subject to that same pressure. Therefore,
for any free surface or free jet, pressure at that point can
be assumed to be zero.
 Bernoulli Assumptions

Key Assumption # 3
The Continuity Equation
In cases where one or both of the previous
assumptions do not apply, then we might need to
use the continuity equation to solve the problem
A1V1=A2V2
Which satisfies that inflow and outflow are equal at
any section
 Bernoulli Example Problem: Free Jets
What is the Flow Rate at point 2? What is the velocity at point 3?
Givens and Assumptions:
Because the tank is so large, we assume V1 = 0 (Volout <<< Voltank)
The tank is open at both ends, thus P1 = P2 = P3 = atm
P1 and P2 and P3= 0
Part 1:
1 Apply Bernoullis eqn between points 1 and 2
P1/gH2O + V12/2g + h = P2/gH20 + V22/2g + 0
H2O
simplifies to
h = V22/2g solving for V
V = (2gh)
A2 2 0
Q = VA or Q = A2(2gh)
3
 Bernoulli Example Problem: Free Jets

Part 2: Find V3?

Apply Bernoullis eq from pt 1 to pt 3
1 P1/gH2O + V12/2g + h = P3/gH20 + V32/2g H

H2O Simplify to h + H = V32/2g

Solving for V V3 = ( 2g ( h + H ))

A2 2 Z=0

3
 The Continuity Equation
Why does a hose with a nozzle shoot water further?
Conservation of Mass:
In a confined system, all of the mass that enters the system, must also exit
the system at the same time.
Flow rate = Q = Area x Velocity
r1A1V1(mass inflow rate) = r2A2V2( mass outflow rate)

If the fluid at both points is the

same, then the density drops
out, and you get the continuity
V1 -> equation:
A1 A2 V2 ->
A1V1 =A2V2
Therefore
Q2 = A 2 V 2 If A2 < A1 then V2 > V1
Q1 = A1V1 Thus, water exiting a nozzle has
A1V1 = A2V2 a higher velocity
 Free Jets

The velocity of a jet of water is clearly related to the depth of

water above the hole. The greater the depth, the higher the
velocity. Similar behavior can be seen as water flows at a very
high velocity from the reservoir behind a large dam such as
Hoover Dam
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
Looking at the Bernoulli equation again:
P/g + V2/2g + z = constant on a streamline
This constant is called the total head (energy), H
Because energy is assumed to be conserved, at any point along
the streamline, the total head is always constant
Each term in the Bernoulli equation is a type of head.
P/g = Pressure Head
V2/2g = Velocity Head
Z = elevation head
These three heads summed equals H = total energy

Next we will look at this graphically

The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

Measures the Pitot measures 1: Static Pressure Tap

static pressure the total head
Measures the sum of the
elevation head and the
1 2 pressure Head.
EL
V2/2g 2: Pitot Tube
HGL
Measures the Total Head
EL : Energy Line
Q
P/g Total Head along a system
HGL : Hydraulic Grade line
Sum of the elevation and
the pressure heads along a
Z system
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
Understanding the graphical approach of
Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade line is Point 1:
key to understanding what forces are Majority of energy
supplying the energy that water holds. stored in the water is in
the Pressure Head
EL
V2/2g Point 2:
HGL V2/2g
Majority of energy
P/g stored in the water is in
2 the elevation head
Q
P/ g If the tube was
symmetrical, then the
Z
velocity would be
constant, and the HGL
1 would be level
Z
 Tank Example
Solve for the Pressure Head, Velocity Head, and Elevation Head at each
point, and then plot the Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

Assumptions and Hints:

P1 and P4 = 0 --- V3 = V4 same diameter tube
We must work backwards to solve this problem
1

R = .5
4 R = .25
2
3 4

1
 Point 1:
Pressure Head : Only atmospheric P1/g = 0
Velocity Head : In a large tank, V1 = 0 V12/2g = 0
Elevation Head : Z1 = 4

4 R = .5
R = .25
2
3 4
1
 Point 4:
Apply the Bernoulli equation between 1 and 4
0 + 0 + 4 = 0 + V42/2(32.2) + 1
V4 = 13.9 ft/s
Pressure Head : Only atmospheric P4/ g = 0
Velocity Head : V42/2g = 3
Elevation Head : Z4 = 1

1
H2O= 62.4 lbs/ft3
4 R = .5
R = .25
2
3 4
1
 Point 3:
Apply the Bernoulli equation between 3 and 4 (V3=V4)
P3/62.4 + 3 + 1 = 0 + 3 + 1
P3 = 0
Pressure Head : P3/g = 0
Velocity Head : V32/2g = 3
Elevation Head : Z3 = 1

4 R = .5
R = .25
2
3 4
1
 Point 2:
Apply the Bernoulli equation between 2 and 3
P2/62.4 + V22/2(32.2) + 1 = 0 + 3 + 1
Apply the Continuity Equation
(P.52)V2 = (P.252)x13.9 V2 = 3.475 ft/s
P2/62.4 + 3.4752/2(32.2) + 1 = 4 P2 = 175.5 lbs/ft2

Pressure Head :
1
P2/ g = 2.81

4 Velocity Head :
R = .5
R = .25 V22/2g = .19
2
3 4
Elevation Head :
1 Z2 = 1
 Plotting the EL and HGL
Energy Line = Sum of the Pressure, Velocity and Elevation heads
Hydraulic Grade Line = Sum of the Pressure and Velocity heads

V2/2g=.19

EL

P/ g =2.81
V2/2g=3 V2/2g=3
Z=4

HGL
Z=1 Z=1
Z=1
Pipe Flow and Open Channel Flow
 Open Channel Flow
Uniform Open Channel Flow is the hydraulic condition in which the
water depth and the channel cross section do not change over
some reach of the channel
Mannings Equation was developed to relate flow and channel
geometry to water depth. Knowing Q in a channel, one can solve
for the water depth Y. Knowing the maximum allowable depth Y,
one can solve for Q.
 Open Channel Flow
Mannings equation is only accurate for cases where the cross
sections of a stream or channel are uniform. Mannings equation
works accurately for man made channels, but for natural streams
and rivers, it can only be used as an approximation.
 Mannings Equation
Terms in the Mannings equation:
V = Channel Velocity
A = Cross sectional area of the channel
P = Wetted perimeter of the channel
R = Hydraulic Radius = A/P
S = Slope of the channel bottom (ft/ft or m/m)
n = Mannings roughness coefficient (.015, .045, .12)
Yn = Normal depth (depth of uniform flow)

Area Yn
Y

X
Wetted Perimeter
Slope = S = Y/X
 Mannings Equation
V = (1/n)R2/3(S) for the metric system

V = (1.49/n)R2/3(S) for the English system

Q = A(k/n)R2/3(S) k is either 1 or 1.49

Yn is not directly a part of Mannings equation. However, A and R depend

on Yn. Therefore, the first step to solving any Mannings equation
problem, is to solve for the geometrys cross sectional area and wetted
perimeter:
For a rectangular Channel
Area = A = B x Yn
Yn
Wetted Perimeter = P = B + 2Yn
B Hydraulic Radius = A/P = R = BYn/(B+2Yn)
 Simple Mannings Example
A rectangular open concrete (n=0.015) channel is to be designed to
carry a flow of 2.28 m3/s. The slope is 0.006 m/m and the bottom
width of the channel is 2 meters.
Determine the normal depth that will occur in this channel.
First, find A, P and R
A = 2Yn P = 2 + 2Yn R = 2Yn/(2 + 2Yn)
Next, apply Mannings equation
Q = A(1/n)R2/3(S)
2.28 = (2Yn)x(1/0.015) * (2Yn/(2 + 2Yn))2/3 * (0.006)

Solving for Yn with Goal Seek

Yn
Yn = 0.47 meters
2m
 The Trapezoidal Channel
House flooding occurs along Brays Bayou when water
overtops the banks. What flow is allowable in Brays Bayou
if it has the geometry shown below?

Slope
S = 0.001 ft/ft 25
a = 20
Concrete Lined
n = 0.015 B=35

A, P and R for Trapezoidal Channels

A = Yn(B + Yn cot a)
Yn

P = B + (2Yn/sin a )
B R = (Yn(B + Yn cot a)) / (B + (2Yn/sin a))
 The Trapezoidal Channel

Slope
S = 0.0003 ft/ft 25
= 20
Concrete Lined
n = 0.015 35

A = Yn(B + Yn cot a)
A = 25( 35 + 25 cot(20)) = 2592 ft2
P = B + (2Yn/sin a )
P = 35 + (2 x 25/sin(20)) = 181.2 ft
R = 2592 / 181.2 = 14.3 ft
 The Trapezoidal Channel

Slope
S = 0.0003 ft/ft 25
= 20
Concrete Lined
n = 0.015 35

Q for Bayou = A(1.49/n)R2/3(S)

Q = 2592 x (1.49 / .015) (14.3)2/3 (.0003)

Q = Max allowable Flow = 26,300 cfs

 Mannings Over Different Terrains
S = .005 ft/ft

5 5 5

Grass Grass 3
n=.03 n=.03
Concrete
n=.015

Estimate the flow rate for the above channel?

Hint:
Treat each different portion of the channel separately. You
must find an A, R, P and Q for each section of the channel that
has a different n coefficient. Neglect dotted line segments.
 Mannings Over Grass
S = .005 ft/ft

5 5 5

Grass Grass 3
n=.03 n=.03
Concrete
n=.015

The Grassy portions:

For each section:
A = 5 x 3 = 15 ft2 P = 5 + 3 = 8 ft R = 15 ft2/8 ft = 1.88 ft
Q = 15(1.49/.03)1.882/3(.005)
Q = 80.24 cfs per section For both sections
Q = 2 x 80.24 = 160.48 cfs
 Mannings Over Concrete
S = .005 ft/ft

5 5 5

Grass Grass 3
n=.03 n=.03
Concrete
n=.015

The Concrete section

A = 5 x 6 = 30 ft2 P = 5 + 3 + 3= 11 ft R = 30 ft2/11 ft = 2.72 ft
Q = 30(1.49/.015)2.722/3(.005)
Q = 410.6 cfs
For the entire channel
Q = 410.6 + 129.3 = 540 cfs
 Pipe Flow and the Energy Equation
For pipe flow, the Bernoulli equation alone is not sufficient. Friction loss
along the pipe, and momentum loss through diameter changes and
corners take head (energy) out of a system that theoretically conserves
energy. Therefore, to correctly calculate the flow and pressures in pipe
systems, the Bernoulli Equation must be modified.
P1/g + V12/2g + z1 =
P2/g + V22/2g + z2 + Hmaj + Hmin

Energy line with no losses

Hmaj
Energy line with major losses

1 2
 Major Losses

Major losses occur over the entire pipe, as the

friction of the fluid over the pipe walls removes
energy from the system. Each type of pipe as a
friction factor, f, associated with it.
Hmaj = f (L/D)(V2/2g)

Energy line with no losses

Hmaj
Energy line with major losses

1 2
 Minor Losses

Unlike major losses, minor losses do not occur over the length of the
pipe, but only at points of momentum loss. Since Minor losses occur at
unique points along a pipe, to find the total minor loss throughout a
pipe, sum all of the minor losses along the pipe. Each type of bend, or
narrowing has a loss coefficient, KL to go with it.

Minor
Losses
 Major and Minor Losses
Major Losses:
Hmaj = f (L/D)(V2/2g)

f = friction factor L = pipe length D = pipe diameter

V = Velocity g = gravity

Minor Losses:
Hmin = KL(V2/2g)
Kl = sum of loss coefficients V = Velocity g = gravity

When solving problems, the loss terms are added to the system at the
second analysis point

P1/g + V12/2g + z1 =
P2/g + V22/2g + z2 + Hmaj + Hmin
Loss Coefficients
 Pipe Flow Example
1 goil= 8.82 kN/m3
Z1 = ?
f = .035 2
Z2 = 130 m
60 m
7m Kout=1
r/D = 0
130 m
r/D = 2

If oil flows from the upper to lower reservoir at a velocity of

1.58 m/s in the D= 15 cm smooth pipe, what is the
elevation of the oil surface in the upper reservoir?
Include major losses along the pipe, and the minor losses
associated with the entrance, the two bends, and the outlet.
 Pipe Flow Example
1
Z1 = ?
2
Z2 = 130 m
60 m
7m Kout=1
r/D = 0
130 m
r/D = 2

Apply Bernoullis equation between points 1 and 2:

Assumptions: P1 = P2 = Atmospheric = 0 V1 = V2 = 0 (large tank)
0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + Hmaj + Hmin
Hmaj = (f L V2)/(D 2g)=(.035 x 197m * (1.58m/s)2)/(.15 x 2 x 9.8m/s2)
Hmaj= 5.85m
 Pipe Flow Example
1
Z1 = ?
2
Z2 = 130 m
60 m
7m Kout=1
r/D = 0
130 m
r/D = 2

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + 5.85m + Hmin

Hmin= 2KbendV2/2g + KentV2/2g + KoutV2/2g
From Loss Coefficient table: Kbend = 0.19 Kent = 0.5 Kout = 1
Hmin = (0.19x2 + 0.5 + 1) * (1.582/2*9.8)
Hmin = 0.24 m
 Pipe Flow Example
1
Z1 = ?
2
Z2 = 130 m
60 m
7m Kout=1
r/D = 0
130 m
r/D = 2

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + Hmaj + Hmin

0 + 0 + Z1 = 0 + 0 + 130m + 5.85m + 0.24m

Z1 = 136.1 meters
 Stormwater Mgt Model
(SWWM)
Most advanced model ever written for
dynamic hydraulic routing
Solves complex equations for pipe flow with
consideration of tailwater at outlet
New graphical user interface for easy input
and presentation of results
Will allow for direct evaluation of flood control
options under various conditions
 SWMM Input
Rainfall
Pattern

Pipe Inlets to Pipes

Elevations
and Sizes

Junction Bayou Level

Locations
 SWMM Output
Flooding Areas

High Bayou
Level

Backflow
at Outlet