SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS

Introduction
A data acquisition system consists of many components
that are integrated to:

Sense physical variables (use of transducers)

Condition the electrical signal to make it readable by
an A/D board
Introduction
Convert the signal into a digital format acceptable by a
computer
Process, analyze, store, and display the acquired data
with the help of software
Data Acquisition System
Block Diagram
Transducers
Sense physical phenomena and translate it into
electric signals.

Examples:
Temperature
Pressure
Light
Force
Sensor and transducer
Sensor' is `a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus
and turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded.
E.g. : Thermistor

Transducer' is 'a device that transfers power from one system to

another in the same or in the different form'.
E.g. Thermistor with it associate circuit convert heat to
electricity.

As a comparison

Sensor' for the sensing element itself and 'transducer' for the
sensing element plus any associated circuitry. All transducers
would thus contain a sensor and most (not all) sensors would
also be transducers.

6
Definition of a transducer

Transducer is any device that converts energy in one form

to another energy. The majority either convert electrical
energy to mechanical displacement or convert some
non-electrical physical quantity, such as temperature,
sound or light to an electrical signal.

8
Functions of transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency
of some measurand.

2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately

processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate
quantitative data about the measurand

Measurand
Transducer Electrical
output

Excitation

Measurand refers to the quantity, property or condition which the

transducer translates to an electrical signal.

9
Selecting a transducers
1. Operating range
2. Sensitivity
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency
4. Environmental compatibility -
5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
6. Accuracy
7. Usage and ruggedness
8. Electrical parameter

10
Classification of transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application,
based primarily on the physical quantity, property, or
condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and
capacitance. E.g. : condenser microphone

B) Self generating transducer:

- not require an external power, and they produce analog
voltage or current when stimulated by some physical form of
energy. E.g. : Thermocouple
12
Temperature Transducers

Temperature transducers can be divided into

four main categories:

1. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

2. Thermocouples
3. Thermistor

18
1) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum,
nickel or resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with
temperature has high intrinsic accuracy. They are available in many
configurations and size and as shielded or open units for both
immersion and surface applications.
The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can
be calculated from the equation:

R R0 (1 T )
where
R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (0C)
R0 = the resistance at the reference temperature, usually
200C
= the temperature coefficient of resistance
T = the difference between the operating and the
reference temperature
19
 What is an RTD?

RTD stands for Resistance Temperature Detector.

The change in temperature is detected by the change in

resistance of the wire.

There are two types of RTD, viz. having positive and

negative thermal coefficients of resistivity (resistance
increases or decreases with the increase in temperature
respectively).
 RTDs are used for temperature measurements by using them in
bridge circuits.

The change in temperature causes considerable resistance change

which gives a voltage drop in accordance with the thermal coefficient
of resistance of the wire.

This voltage is further amplified and the temperature is read thus.

This is how the RTDs are used in circuits assisting in automatic
control and measurement with high accuracy.
 Advantages
Due to no fluid present absolute temperature is recorded.

It is highly sensitive and gives accurate results.

It has a good range of temperature measurement. It can thus measure from

very low to very high temperature.

Due to electrical output (resistance change) it can be used with PLCs and

complete automation can be achieved.

 Applications of RTD

It is widely used in furnaces for automatic temperature measurement.

Due to its compactness, it replaces conventional thermometers as well
as thermocouples thus eliminating the use of lots of wires.
Used in medical and chemical laboratories to detect very low
temperatures (like dry ice and liquid nitrogen).
Due to electrical output it is used wherever feedback system is
required and corrective action is thus taken in an automated system.
 What are thermocouples?
Thermocouples are metal couples which work on the Seebeck
effect.
In this effect, any conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will
generate a voltage.
Measuring this voltage necessarily involves connecting another
conductor to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then also
experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its own
which will oppose the original.
2) Thermocouple

It consists of two wires of different metals are joined together

at one end, a temperature difference between this end and the
other end of wires produces a voltage between the wires. The
magnitude of this voltage depends on the materials used for the
wires and the amount of temperature difference between the
joined ends and the other ends.

25
 Contd
The emf of the thermocouple :
E = c(T1 T2) + k(T12 T22)

Where
c and k = constant of the thermocouple
materials
T1 = The temperature of the hot
junction
T2 = The temperature of the cold or
reference junction

26
 Types of thermocouples
There are about 4 to 5 types of thermocouples which are categorized based
on sensitivity and range.

J and K type thermocouples are noted for their high sensitivity. These
however, have a limited range. (about 41V/C for K and 55V/C)
Platinum Types: The B, S, T and R type of thermocouples are less sensitive
(about 10V/C) but they have a very significant advantage of high range.
They can measure large temperatures and are usually used in furnaces.
 Thermocouple sensors

Sensitivity: It is the voltage or emf produced per degree Celsius rise or fall
in temperature at the junction.
Construction: Simply welded or twisted between 2 metals.
Range: Thermocouples have the greatest range in all types of temperature
measurement instrument domains.
 Time Response: It is the time required by the thermocouple to reach
thermal equilibrium with the surrounding. Industrial TC using thick
wire have lower response of about 20s however, TCs of small gauge
wires have response time of about 20ms.
Signal conditioning: the output voltage from the thermocouples is
very small usually less then 50 mV. Thus considerable amplification is
required so as to be used for practical applications
3) Thermistor

A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering

mixtures of metallic oxide, such as oxides of manganese,
nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
Thermistors have negative temperature coefficient
(NTC). That is, their resistance decreases as their
temperature rises.

Types of thermistor Resistance

Disc 1 to 1M
Washer 1 to 50k
Rod high resistance

32
This figure shows
resistance versus
temperature for a
family thermistor.
The resistance value
marked at the bottom
end of each curve is a
value at 250C

Note!
The resistance
decreases as their
temperature rises-NTC

33
 Advantages of Thermistor
Small size and low cost

Fast response over narrow temperature range

Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient

(NTC) region

Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence

of resistance on absolute temperature.

Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due

to large resistance

34
Limitations of Thermistor

Non linearity in resistance vs temperature

characteristics
Unsuitable for wide temperature range
Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high
resistance

35
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

It consists basically of a primary winding and

two secondary windings, wound over a hollow
tube and positioned so the primary winding is
between two secondaries. In figure shows the
construction of the LVDT.

An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet
coupling between the primary and the two secondaries. When the core is in
the centre, voltage induced in the two secondaries is equal. When the core
is moved in one direction from centre, the voltage induced in one winding
is increased and that in the other is decreased. Movement in the opposite
direction reverses this effect

37
Cont..

38
Cont..

39
L V D Ts
What is an LVDT?
An LVDT is a Linear Position Sensor
With a Proportional Analog Output

An LVDT has 2 Elements, a Moving

Core and a Stationary Coil Assembly
L V D Ts
Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Transformer: AC Input / AC Output

Differential: Natural Null Point in Middle

Variable: Movable Core, Fixed Coil

Linear: Measures Linear Position

How LVDTs Work
Working principle of LVDT
Types of LVDTs
Unguided Armature

Captive Armature

Spring-extended Armature
Unguided Armature
Measured Object

Armature must be attached

to the specimen
Armature fits loosely

Body must be separately

supported & properly aligned
Elevation/Cross-Section View
Unguided Armature
There is no wear on the LVDT because no contact is
made between armature and core.
LVDT does not restrict the resolution of measured data
(infinite resolution).

Measured Motion

Elevation/Cross-Section View
Captive Armature
Measured Object

Armature must be attached to

the specimen

Armature is both guided and

restrained by a low friction assembly

Body must be separately supported

Captive Armature
Advantages compared to unguided armature:

Better for longer working ranges

Preferred when misalignment may occur

Spring-Extended Armature
Measured Object

Like the captive armature, it has a

low-friction bearing assembly

Internal spring to continuously

push the armature to its fullest
possible extension
Elevation/Cross-Section View
LVDT
Characteristics
DC LVDT
LVDT
 LVDT
LVDTs are robust equipment for measuring
deflection.
AC LVDTs require separate signal conditioning
equipment, while DC LVDTs include signal
conditioning equipment on the device.
There are three types of LVDT: unguided
armature, captive armature, and spring-extended
armature.
AC LVDTs cost less than DC, but the entire
measurement system must be considered.
 Capacitive Transducer
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

kA 0
C ( Farads)
d

where
k = dielectric constant
A = the area of the plate, in m2
o = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
d = the plate placing in m

54
 Contd
Forms of Capacitance Transducers

Rectilinear Capacitance
Rotary plate capacitor Transducer

Thin diaphragm

55
Contd

Rotary plate capacitor:

The capacitance of this unit proportional to the

amount of the fixed plate that is covered, that
shaded by moving plate. This type of transducer
will give sign proportional to curvilinear
displacement or angular velocity.

56
Contd
Rectilinear capacitance
transducer:

It consists of a fixed cylinder and

a moving cylinder. These
pieces are configured so the
moving piece fits inside the
fixed piece but insulated from
it.

57
Contd
Thin diaphragm:
A transducer that varies the
spacing between surfaces. The
dielectric is either air or vacuum.
Often used as Capacitance
microphones.

58
Contd
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.

Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations
2. the possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to
long lead length

Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit

59
 Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or
passive type. The self generating type utilises the basic
electrical generator principle, i.e, a motion between a
conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor (generator action). This relative motion between
the field and the conductor is supplied by changes in the
measurand.

An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that

converts physical motion (position change) into a change in
inductance. Transducers of variable inductance type work
upon one of the following principles:
1. Variation of self inductance
2. Variation of mutual inductance
60
 Cont..

Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of

displacement. The displacement to be measured is
arranged to cause variation in any of three variables:

1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits

61
 Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that
uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires. It is a very versatile detector
and transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical
force, or displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire
element looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually
cemented to the member undergoing
stress. A tensile stress tends to
elongate the wire and thereby
increase its length and decrease its
cross-sectional area.
62
 The combined effect is an increase in resistance:

L
R
Where,
A
: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters
L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)

As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular interest:

1) The change in gauge resistance

2) The change in length

The relationship between these two variables called gauge factor,

K, is expressed mathematically as

63
 R / R
K
L / L
Where

K= the gauge factor

R=the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
R= the change in initial resistance in ohms
L= the initial length in meters (without strain)
L=the change in initial length in meters

L/L same unit with G, therefore

R / R
K
G
64
From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal force/area.

F
S
A
Where
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
F= the force in kilograms
A= area in square meters

Then the modulus of elasticity of material E or called Youngs modulus

(Hookes Law) is written as:

Where,
S
E E= Young modules in kg per square meter
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
G G= the strain (no units)

65
Metallic strain gauge formed from thin resistance
wire or etched from thin sheets of metal foil.

Wire gauge (small) to minimum leakage for

high T applications

Semiconductor strain gauge high output

transducers as load cells

Strain gauge is generally used as one arm of bridge

66
Pyrometers
To measure temperature of a very hot body
Where thermometers cannot brought into contact or
Where hot bodies are moving
Pyrometers
Measurements done by measuring energy radiated by
a hot body or by comparison of colour
 Wave length of thermal radiation-0.01 to 100 m
Black body radiation
Sefan- Boltzmanns law
Wb = T4

b/w two bodies

Wb = (T14 T2 4)
 Emissive power of blackbody is
Wby = C1 -5 / e (C2/ T)
where wavelength in cm
C1 I radiation const
- 3.74 X10 9 erg/s/sq.cm/0.01cm
C2 1.438 cm K
T- absolute temp of black body
As temperature of emitting source changes colour
changes
Ie, for lower temp the colour is dull
 For practical radiating bodies
We have to consider absorbtion, reflectivity,
transmissibility, emissivity
 Emissivity

= 0.365(/)
- resitivity
 Here detector temp > casting temp
Detector losses its temp. in all ways
If detector temp. finally settles to T2 & casting temp is
at T0 and target temp is T1
Ko (T2- T0 ) = K1 T1 4 = heat input

Value of T0 - important for detectors

 V o (T2- T0 ) T1 4

V= Kv T n

n b/w 3.5 to 4.5

Kv- Experimental value
Comman detectors in pyrometers
Thermopile-
photocell
Metal bolometer
thermister
Thermopile
Larger o/p
Lower response time
Adaptable for industrial applications
Bolometer
Fast in response
Good sensitivity
costly
Thermister
Not used due to
Poor precision
Difficult to provide compensation
Low response time
Photocell

Fast
Large sensitivity
But limited spectral sensitivity
Lens for focusing targets
Uses selective materials to prevents absorption by them
1. Thallium iodide more suitable for high temp with
shorter emission
2. fused silica -High temp with shorter wavelength
b/w 250 to 1900 C
3. Pyrex
Sources of errors in pyrometers
Interleaving media has to be clear
Carbon dioxide, water vapour etc absorb selective bans
of wavelength
Emittance errors
Sensitive to obstruction
Advantages
Abitity to measure high temp
No need for contact
Fast response speed
High o/p
Moderate cost
disadvantages
Non linear scale
Emmisivity of target affect measurement
Errors due to interleaving media
Application
Can be used where life of thermocouple limits
Optical pyrometer
Optical pyrometer
Optical pyrometer
Range b/w 700 to 3000 oC
More accurate.
Lower limit determined by human eye
Human eye compares the radiation
Optical pyrometer- working
disappearing filament type
Radiation received by objective lens- focus on
filament- viewed through a microscope system-
filament appears in background.
red cadmium filters makes the radiation appear
momchromatic
Working
Working
At Bt = Bf milli ammeter gives a current proptional to
temperature
tungsten is used
Advantages
Flexible
Portable
Convient to use
Light weight
Can monitor moveable objects
Non contact type
accurate
Disadvantages
Expensive
Human error
Not useful for measuring temp of clear gas
At high temp. filament erodes frequently
 Can also use double control pyrometers
Radiation pyrometer disappering filament
type
CONTENTS
Definition
History
Working
Characteristics
Types
Advantages
Disadvantages
Application
DEFINITION
A strain gauge is an example of passive transducer that
converts a mechanical displacement into a change of
resistance.
A strain gauge is a thin, wafer-like device that can be
attached to a variety of materials to measure applied strain.
HISTORY
A brief history of the Strain Gauge:
1856 : Lord Kelvin first reported on a relationship between
strain and the resistance of wire conductors.
Early 1930s : Charles Kearns made the first notable use of
bonded resistance strain gauges to measure vibratory
strains in high performance propeller blades.
1937/8 : Arthur Ruge discovered that small diameter wires
made of electrical resistance alloys could be bonded to a
structure to measure surface strain.
1952 : At this time, printed circuits were emerging, and
Saunders-Roe developed the idea of making a strain gauge
by etching the pattern for the gauge from a thin foil.
STRUCTURE
The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a
wide choice of shapes and sizes to suit a variety of
applications. They consist of a pattern of resistive foil
which is mounted on a backing material.
They operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to
stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a defined way.
WORKING
The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone Bridge
circuit. The change in resistance is proportional to applied
strain and is measured with Wheatstone bridge.
WORKING
The sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of a
characteristic called the gauge factor, defined as unit
change in resistance per unit change in length, or

Gauge factor is related to Poisson's ratio by,

K=1+2
TYPES
Based on principle of working :
Mechanical
Electrical
Piezoelectric

Based on mounting :
Bonded strain gauge
Unbonded strain gauge
TYPES
Based on construction :
Foil strain gauge
Semiconductor strain gauge
Photoelectric Strain gauge
MECHANICAL STRAIN GAUGE
It is made up of two separate plastic layers. The bottom
layer has a ruled scale on it and the top layer has a red
arrow or pointer. One layer is glued to one side of the crack
and one layer to the other. As the crack opens, the layers
slide very slowly past one another and the pointer moves
over the scale. The red crosshairs move on the scale as the
crack widens.
ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGE
When an electrical wire is
stretched within the limits
of its elasticity such that it
does not break or
permanently deform, it will
become narrower and
longer, changes that
increase its electrical
resistance end-to-end.
Strain can be inferred by
measuring change in
resistance.
PIEZOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE
Piezoelectric generate electric voltage when strain is
applied over it. Strain can be calculated from voltage.
Piezoelectric strain gauges are the most sensitive
and reliable devices.
BONDED STRAIN GAUGE
A bonded strain-gage element, consisting of a metallic
wire, etched foil, vacuum-deposited film, or
semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained surface.
UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
The unbonded strain gage consists of a wire stretched
between two points in an insulating medium such as air.
One end of the wire is fixed and the other end is attached
to a movable element.
FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
The foil strain guage has metal foil photo-etched in a grid
pattern on the electric insulator of the thin resin and guage
leads attached,
SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE
For measurements of small strain, semiconductor strain
gauges, so called piezoresistors, are often preferred over foil
gauges. Semiconductor strain gauges depend on the
piezoresistive effects of silicon or germanium and measure
the change in resistance with stress as opposed to strain.
PHOTOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE
The photoelectric gauge uses a light beam, two fine
gratings, and a photocell detector to generate an electrical
current that is proportional to strain. The gage length of
these devices can be as short as 1/16 inch, but they are
costly and delicate.
STRAIN GAUGE
STRAIN GAUGE SELECTION CRITERIA:
Gauge Length
Number of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
Arrangement of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
Grid Resistance
temperature sensitivity
Carrier Material
Gauge Width
Availability
low cost
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
There is no moving part.
It is small and inexpensive.

Disadvantages
It is non-linear.
It needs to be calibrated.
APPLICATIONS

Residual stress
Vibration measurement
Torque measurement
Bending and deflection measurement
Compression and tension measurement
Strain measurement
 HANZHONG QUAN YUAN
MANUFACTURERS
INTEGRATED PROCESS SYSTEMS ELECTRONICS

GOLDBELL
SYSTEMS VISHAY PRECISION GROUP
MICRO MEASUREMENTS
THANK YOU