Circuits containing both independent and dependent sources

For these circuits we must calculate both the open-circuit

ETH and short-circuit current ISC in order to calculate RTH.
We note that we CANNOT split a dependent source and its
controlling variable if we decide to break the network to
find the Thevenin equivalent.

Example 11: Find the Thevenin equivalent of the network at

the terminals a-b
 We break the network at points A-B
We let all currents be in mA
Open-circuit voltage:
Apply KVL to the left loop: 2I2 = 2(I1 + I2) + I1
from which I1 = 0
Applying KVL to the right loop: -12 = 2I2 + 2(I1 + I2) = 4I2
from which I2 = -3 mA
VAB = 2I2 = 2 (-3) = -6V
 Short-circuit current:

The current I4 = 0 because the 2-k is short-circuited.

This also implies that the CCVS = 0.

V AB 6V 1
Calculate
RTH :
RTH k
I SC - 18 mA 3
 Connect the Thevenin equivalent circuit to the remainder of
the circuit at terminal A-B:

And using voltage divider rule

 Example 12: Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit
external to RL

Break it to the right of the 2-k resistor. Currents are in mA.

16 = 4IX
IX = 4mA
VAB = 2IX = 2 4 = 8V

Calculate VAB: Apply KVL to loop,

2IX = 2IX + (3+1)(IX - 4)
 Short-circuit current, ISC :

ISC = 4mA, (it is here that we find the advantage of breaking

the network to the right of the 4-k resistor)

Connect the equivalent

circuit to the remainder
of the circuit:
From the circuit, we have ETH = 8 V and RTH = 6 k
 Nortons Theorem
Nortons theorem states that any two terminal linear
dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source and a parallel
resistance:

Measurement of parameters
Measure IN = ISC and RN = RTH in the same way as
described for the Thevenin network.
 Obtaining Norton equivalent circuits
- Nortons Theorem is identical to Thevenins theorem
except that the equivalent circuit is an independent
current source in parallel with resistance.
- Therefore, the above discussions of Thevenins theorem
with respect to the equivalent circuits are also
applicable to the Nortons equivalent circuit

Example 13: Find Norton equivalent circuit at terminals a-

b of the circuit
 Break the network to the left of the 4- k resistor:
I N I1 2 123 2 6 mA
RN 3 k

Connect the equivalent circuit to the remainder of the circuit

and obtain the required equivalent circuit
 Example 14: Find Norton equivalent at terminals a-b of the
network below:

Break the network to the left of the 6-k resistor

 Applying KVL to the two loops each having the 6-V
source gives
6 4I 2 2(I1 - 2)
6 2(I1 - I 2 - 2) 2(I1 2)
Solving the two equations simultaneously, we obtain
Calculate R N

2 4 10
RN 2 2//4 2 k
6 3
Substitution Theorem
It states the following:
If the voltage across and the current through any
branch of a dc network are known, this branch can
be replaced by any combination of elements that
will maintain the same voltage across and current
through the chosen branch.

The theorem can be stated more simply as this: For

any branch equivalence, the terminal voltage and
current must be the same.
We note also the following:
It follows from this theorem that a known potential
difference and current in a network can be replaced
by an ideal voltage source and current source
respectively.
For this theorem to be applied, a potential
difference or current value must be known or found
using some other technique such as Thevenins or
Nortons theorem.
This theorem cannot be used to solve networks
with two or more sources that are not in series or
parallel.
Example demonstrating the effect of substitution theorem
Consider this circuit

Equivalent branches for branch a-b obtained by the use of

substitution theorem:

We note that for each equivalent,

- the terminal voltage and current are the same.
- the response of the remainder of the circuit is unchanged
by substituting any one of the equivalent branches.
Applications of the theorem
Knowing a voltage at some point in a complex network
- Refer to circuit on the left.
- The known potential difference V is replaced by a voltage
source thus permitting the isolation of the portion of the
network consisting of R3, R4, and R5 as shown by the
circuit on the right
 Knowing the current at some point in a complex circuit
- Consider the circuit on the left.
- Replacing the current I by an ideal current source permit
the isolation of R4 and R5 as shown by the circuit on the
right.
 Example 14: Using the substitution theorem, draw three
equivalent branches for the branch a-b of the network
below

Solution:
- Current in the 15-k resistor is 3 mA and the voltage across it
is 45 V.
- Proposed branches are shown on the right
- Verify that the currents in other branches of the circuit are
unchanged by substituting any of the proposed branches.
Reciprocity Theorem
It states the following:
- The current I in any branch of a linear network, due to a
single voltage source E anywhere else in the circuit, will
equal the current through the branch in which the source
was originally located if the source is placed in the
branch in which the current I was originally measured.

Or more simply as this:

- The location of a voltage source and the resulting current
anywhere in the circuit may be interchanged without a
change in current.
 Other ways of stating the theorem are :
- An ideal voltage source and ideal ammeter when connected
in two different branches of a linear network may be
interchanged without a change in the ammeter reading.

- An ideal current source and ideal voltmeter when

connected across two different branches of a network may
be interchanged without a change in the voltmeter reading.

The statements are said to be the dual of each other.

We note also the following:
- The theorem requires that the polarity of the voltage source
corresponds to the direction of the branch current.
- The theorem is applicable only to single source networks.
 Example 15: Demonstrate the validity of the reciprocity
theorem using the networks below:

Solution:
Circuit (a):

Circuit (b):
 Example 16: Demonstrate the validity of the reciprocity
theorem using the networks below:

Solution:
Circuit (a): Current in 2- resistor
=
Circuit (b): Current in 3- resistor
=
 Example 17: Use superposition and reciprocity theorems
jointly to determine the current I

Solution: According to superposition I must be obtained by solving the

following two circuits for IA and IB and the actual current obtained as
I = IB IA:
Solving circuit (b) for IB
Total resistance =

The required current IB = total current = = 5A

The reciprocity theorem will be applied when solving circuit (a) and
to apply it we shall need the reading of the ammeter in circuit (b)

Ammeter reading = by current divider rule.

Solving circuit (a) for IA
We observe that circuit (a) can be derived from circuit (b)
by first interchanging the ammeter and the voltage source 35 V in the
circuit and then changing the value 35 to 42.
According to reciprocity theorem, when the ammeter and the 35-V source
are interchanged, the ammeter should continue to read .
If the voltage should change to 42 V, then the reading of the ammeter
should by simple proportion also change to
Thus the ammeter in circuit (a) reads 2 A, or IA = 2 A.
Therefore by superposition I = IB IA = 5 2 = 3 A.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
It states the following: A load will receive maximum power
from a linear dc network when its total resistance is exactly
equal to the Thevenin resistance of the network as seen by
the load.
Example 18: Analysis of a transistor network resulted in the
reduced circuit below. Find RL necessary to transfer
maximum power to RL, and calculate the power PL under
these conditions.
Solution:
RL RTh 40 k ,
I L 10 2 5 mA and
PL max I L2 RL (5 10 3 ) 2 40 10 3 1 W
Millmans Theorem
This theorem may be used to reduce any number of parallel
voltage sources to one.
This would permit finding the current through or voltage
across a load resistor.
In general, Millmans theorem states the following: Any
number of parallel voltage sources can be reduced to a
single voltage source whose internal resistance Req and emf
Eeq are given by
1 1 1 1 Use the plus for sources
................ and
Req R1 R2
RN supplying energy in one
E1 E2 EN direction and the minus for
Eeq .......... Req
R1 R2 RN sources supplying energy in
the opposite direction
 Example 19: Using Millmans theorem, find the current
through and the voltage across the resistor RL

Solution:
.

Hence
and
 Example 20: Using Millmans theorem find that current
through and voltage across the 6- resistor

Solution