Intelligence and

Achievement: Theories
and Tests
Definitions of Intelligence
Sternberg (1986) : a concept in terms of the way it is
measured.
2 shortcomings:
They are circular.
It block further progress in understanding the nature of intelligence.
Real definition:
One that seeks to tell us the true nature of the thing being
defined.
Expert definition:
Capacity to learn from experience
Capacity to adapt to ones environment.
Layperson and Expert
Concenptions of Intelligence
A Primer of Factor Analysis
Summarize the interrelationships among a large number of variables in a
concise and accurate manner as an aid in conceptualization.

The Correlation Matrix

The Factor Matrix and Factor Loadings
Geometric Representation of Factor Loadings
The Rotated Factor Matrix
The Interpretationg of Factors
Issues in Factor Analysis
The Correlation Matrix
A complete table of intercorrelations among all the variables.
The Factor Matrix and Factor
Loadings
Table shows the extent to which each test loads on each of
the derived factors.
Geometric Representation of
Factor Loadings
Customary to represent the first two or three factors as
reference axes in two or three-dimensional space.
The Rotated Factor Matrix
The Interpretationg of Factors

In order to interpret or name a factor, the researcher must

make a reasoned judgement about the common processes
and abilities shared by the tests with strong loadings on that
factor.
Galton and Sensory Keenness
Promoted by Galton and James Mckeen Cattell.
They thought that intelligence was underwritten by keen
sensory abilities.
The more perceptive our senses, the greater capacity for
intelligence. (sensory perception).
He believed that people with excellent physical abilities are
better adapted for survival highly intelligent
To measure mental abilities Galton relied heavily on physical
measures, such as height, weight, strength, rate of movement,
visual and auditory acuity and reaction times, since he
believed that there was a consistent co-relationship between
sensory and mental acuity (Hothersall, 1995).
It proved to be largely a psychometric dead end.
Spearman and The g Factor
2-factor theory of intelligence:
~ A single General factor (g) represented what all mental
tests have in common.
~Numerous Specific factors (s) related to whatever unique
abilities a particular test required so it differed from test to
test
He noted that all tests of mental ability are positively
correlated.
He discovered that people who score high on IQ or mental
ability tests usually scored higher on other types of tests, and
people that scored lower generally had lower scores on other
tests. (e.g.: if we are generally intelligent, we are more likely to
develop strong mechanical, musical, artistic, and other kinds
of abilities)
 g factor involved three principles of cognition:
1. Apprehension of experience,
2. Eduction of relations
3. Eduction of correlates.
Eduction : the process of figuring things out.
The most difficult issue faced by Spearmans two-factor theory is the
existence of group factors.
As early as 1906, Spearman noted that relatively dissimilar tests could have
correlations higher than the values predicted from their respective g
loadings.
This finding raised the possibility that a group of diverse measures might
share in common a unitary ability other than g.
Thurstone and The Primary
Mental Abilities
7 Primary Mental Abilities (PMAs)
Verbal Comprehension
Verbal Fluency
Number or Arithmetic Ability
Memory
Perceptual Speed
Inductive Reasoning
Space
 Thurstone theorized that there were common group factors
present in different classes of tests.
For example, a reading comprehension test and a vocabulary
test show greater correlation than do a reading
comprehension test and a measure of numerical ability.
However, Thurstone acknowledged that his primary mental
abilities correlated moderately with each other, proving the
existence of one or more second-order factors.
Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC)
Theory
Many psychometricians consider CHC theory posses the
strongest empirical foundation of any theory of intelligence.
Although the big picture of CHC theory is well established,
researchers continue to refine the details.
According CHC theory, intelligence consists of pervasive,
broad, and narrow abilities that are hierarchically organized.
Pervasive level (Stratum III) - a single general factor (g) oversees
all cognitive activities.
Broad(Stratum II) - include several prominent and well-
established abilities.
Narrow(Stratum I) - include approximately 70 abilities.
Definitions of CHC Broad
Ability Factors
Fluid intelligence/Reasoning (Gf)
Crystallized Intelligence / Knowledge (Gc)
Domain-Specific Knowledge (Gkn)
Visual-Spatial Abilities (Gv)
Auditory Processing (Ga)
Broad Retriveal [Memory] (Gr)
Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs)
Decision/Reaction Time or Speed (Gt)
1. Fluid intelligence/Reasoning (Gf)
high level reasoning, cannot formed automatically, involved
forming concepts, generating hypothesis and so on.
non-verbal, culture-free.
2. Crystallized Intelligence / Knowledge (Gc)
an individuals breadth and depth of cultural knowledge
language, information and concepts of a persons culture.
verbal, cultural dependent.
3. Domain-Specific Knowledge (Gkn)
a persons acquired knowledge in one or more specialized
domains that do not represent typical experiences of individuals
in the culture.
biology, using computers and so on.
4. Visual-Spatial Abilities (Gv)
ability of imagining, retaining, transforming mental
representations of visual images.
predicting image of incomplete picture, finding a hidden object
in a picture and so on.
5. Auditory Processing (Ga)
ability to perceive accurately auditory information.
discriminating tonal patterns in music and filter signal from noises
and so on.
6. Broad Retrieval [Memory] (Gr)
ability to store new information in long-term memory and then
retrieve it later through association.
ability to call up ideas and providing the names of familiar faces.
7. Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs)
speed of executing overlearned and automatized cognitive
processes, especially when high level of attention and focused
concentration are required.
the ability to perform simple arithmetic calculations with
lightning speed.
8. Decision/Reaction Time or Speed (Gt)
make decisions quickly in response to simple stimuli, measured
by reaction time.
quickly press the space bar whenever the letter x appears on a
computer screen.
Guiford and The Structure-Of-
Intellect Model
Guilfords SOI model classifies intellectual abilities along three
dimensions called operations, contents, and products.
 5 Operations
(the kind of intellectual operation required by the test.)
1. Cognition : discovering, knowing
2. Memory : committing items of information to
memory, such as a series of numbers
3. Divergent Production : retrieving from memory
items of a specific class, such as naming objects that
are hard and edible.
4. Convergent Production : retrieving from memory a
correct items, such as a crossword puzzle word
5. Evaluation : determining how well a certain item of
information satisfies specific logical requirements.
 5 Contents
(the nature of the materials or information presented to
the examinee.)
1. Visual : images
2. Auditory : Sounds
3. Symbolic : such as mathematical symbols that stand for
something
4. Semantic : Meanings, usually of word symbols
5. Behavioral : the ability to comprehend the mental state
and behaviour of other persons.
 6 Products
(the different kinds of mental structures that the brain
must produce to derive a correct answer)
1. Unit : a single entity having a unique combinations of
properties or attributes
2. Class : similar units have in common, such as a set of
triangles
3. Relation : an observed connection between two items,
such as two tones
4. System : Three or more items forming a recognizable
whole, such as a melody
5. Transformation : a change in an item of information,
such as a correction of a misspelling
6. Implication : what an individual item implies, such as to
expect thunder following lightning.
Planning, Attention,
Simultaneous, and Successive
(PASS) Theory
Analysis shows that there is strong evidence for
distinguishing two basic forms of integrative activity of
the cerebral cortex by which different aspects:
the integration of the individual stimuli arriving in the
brain into simultaneous,
the integration of individual stimuli arriving
consecutively in the brain into temporally organized,
successive series.
 Planning (last stage)
Selection, usage, and monitoring of effective solutions
to problems.
Entails impulse control.
Attention (first stage)
Requires selectively attending to some stimuli while
ignoring others.
Simultaneous processing
Forms of thinking and perception that require spatial
analysis, such as drawing a cube require simultaneous
information processing
Successive processing
Needed in remembering a series of digits, repeating a
string of words and imitating a series of hand
movements.
 Processing occurs within the constraints of the individual's
knowledge base.
Each of the four processes is broadly associated with one of the
anatomical divisions of the brain.
Furthermore, each process involves perception, memory, and
thinking.
 Processing occurs within the constraints of the individual's
knowledge base.
Each of the four processes is broadly associated with one of
the anatomical divisions of the brain.
Furthermore, each process involves perception, memory, and
thinking.
Information Processing
Theories of Intelligence
Informations-processing conceptions of intelligence propose
models of how individuals mentally represent and process
information.
Architectural system (hardware): biologically based properties
necessary for information processing such as memory span
and speed of encoding/decoding information.
include capacity such as number of slots in short-term
memory, capacity of long term memory, durability(rate of
information loss) and efficiency of operation
considered to be relatively hardwired and impervious to
change by the environment.
 Excutive system (software): environmentally learned
components that steer problems solving, provide overall
guidance to the functional components.
Elements of the executive system include the knowledge
base(retrieval of knowledge from long term memory),
schemes(rule of thinking), control processes and
metacognition(self-awareness of ones thought processes).
Metacognition is the process of thinking about thinking.
Gardner and The Theory of
Multiple Intelligences
According to Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences,
humans have several different ways of processing information
and these ways are relatively independent of one another.
The theory is a critique of the standard intelligence theory,
which emphasizes the correlation among abilities.
Since 1999, Gardner has identified eight intelligences:
linguistic, logic-mathematical, musical, spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and
naturalistic. Gardner is informally considering two additional
intelligences, existential and pedagogical.
Sternberg and The Triarchic
Theory of Successful
Intelligence
Triarchic theory emphasizes what he calls successful
intelligence or the ability to adapt to, shape, and select
environments to accomplish ones goal and those of ones
society and culture.
3 TYPES of intelligence : (analytical, creative and practical)
All people have all 3 types to some degree
Most people are stronger in one type than the others
Intelligence is trainable
Intelligence is affected by and related to culture
 3 types of intelligence
Analytical Intelligence
Metacomponent
Performance component
Knowledge acquisition
Ability to think abstractly, process information effectively
Creative Intelligence
Experience continuum: novelty to automaticity
Ability to formulate new ideas, to combine seemingly unrelated
facts or information
Practical Intelligence
Adapt,Shape,Select
Ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions and to
shape the environment so as to maximize ones strengths and
compensate for ones weaknesses
Individual Tests of Intelligence and Achievement

The Wechsler Subtest : Description and analysis

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale -IV
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale : Fifth Edition
Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude-4
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II
Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 (KBIT-2)
Individual Tests of Achievement
Nature and Assessment of Learning Disabilities
ORIENTATION TO INDIVIDUAL INTELLIGENCE TESTS

INDIVIDUAL INTELLIGENCE TESTS

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV (WAIS-IV)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)
Stanford-Binet: Fifth Edition (SB5)
Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitute-4 (DTLA-4)
Cognitive Assessment System-II (CAS-II)
Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 (KBIT-2)

Probably account for 95% of the intellectual

assessments conducted in the US.
 To gain an understanding of the subjects intellectual
functioning, the overall IQ is important. However, it
may be irrelevant or misleading.

Every instrument approaches the measurement of

intelligence in different perspectives and yields a
distinctive set of subtest scores.

A test well suited for one referral issue might not

perform in another context.

A testing instrument should be based on knowledge

of its strengths and weaknesses as they pertain to
the referral question.
THE WECHSLER SCALES OF INTELLIGENCE

David Wechsler (1939-81)

Psychologist at Bellevue Hospital
in New York City.

In 1930s, conceived a series of

simple instruments that defined
intelligence testing.
Origins of the Wechsler Tests

Dr. David Wechsler developed

the Wechsler intelligence scales.

His 1st tests, named the

Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence
Scales, was published in 1939.

Reason: the existing intelligence

tests were woefully inadequate
for assessing adult intelligence
 Developed to rectify several flaws noted in previous
tests:-
o The test items possessed no appeal for adults.
o Too many questions emphasized mere
manipulation of words.
o The instructions emphasized speed at the
expense of accuracy.
o The reliance on mental age was irrelevant to
adult testing.
To correct these shortcomings:-
Designed his test specifically for adults;
Added performance items to balance verbal
questions;
Reduced the emphasis on speeded questions;
Invented a new method for obtaining the IQ.
 Mental Age Attained or Actual
IQ = Score
IQ = Expected Mean
Chronologic
al Age Score for Age

IQ remains constant with normal aging, even

though raw intellectual ability might shift or even
decline.
To use his test as a psychiatric diagnosis aid:
Wechslers scale includes words and symbols (verbal
subtests) versus the ability to manipulate objects
and perceive visual patterns (performance
subtests).
Large differences between verbal ability (V) and
performance ability (P).
Wechsler believed that organic brain disease,
psychoses, and emotional disorders gave rise to a
marked V > P pattern.
Adolescent psychopaths and people with mild
mental retardation yielded strong P > V pattern.
General Features of the Wechsler Tests

The latest editions of the Wechsler intelligence tests

the WPPSI-IV, WISC-IV, and WAIS-IV.

Common features:

1. 13 15 subtests.
o Allows examiner to analyze intra-individual
strengths and weaknesses.
o Readers will learn the pattern of subtests and
factor scores with useful information hidden in
the overall level of performance.
2. An empirically-based breakdown into composite scores
and a full scale IQ.
o Original intelligence scales only measured Verbal IQ
and Performance IQ;
o WISC-IV & WAIS-IV now yield composite or index
scores in 4 areas (verbal comprehension, perceptual
reasoning, working memory and processing speed).

3. A common metric of IQ and Index scores.

o The mean for IQ and Index scores is 100 and
standard deviation is 15 for all tests and all age
groups.
o The scaled scores on each subtest have a mean of 10
and a standard deviation of approximately 3, allow
to analyze the subtest scores for relative strengths
and weaknesses.
4. Common subtests for the different test versions.
o The preschool, child, and adult Wechsler tests
share a common core of the same 6 subtests.
o Easily can transfer this skill within the Wechsler
family of intellectual measures.
 WPPSI-III WISC-IV WAIS-IV
Similarities X X X
Vocabulary X X X
Comprehension X X X
Information X X X
Word reasoning X X

Subtest Receptive vocabulary X

Composition Picture Naming X
of the Block Design X X X
Wechsler Picture Concepts X X
Intelligence Matrix Reasoning X X X
Picture Completion X X
Tests Visual Puzzles X
Figure Weights X
Object Assembly X X

L-N Sequencing X X
Arithmetic X X
Digit Span X X
Coding X X X
Symbol search X X X
Cancellation X X
The Wechsler Subtest : Description and analysis
Wechslers Definition of Intelligence

The aggregate of global capacity of the individual to

act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal
effectively with his environment.

In designing his tests;

Wechsler selected components to represent a wide
array of underlying abilities.
Asked subjects to do things.

Subtests are diverse and rely on mental production.

 Subtests
Information
o Factual knowledge of persons, places and
common phenomenon is tested.
o Indirectly, this subtest measure learning and
memory skills.
o Information is one of the best measures of
general abilities among the Wechsler subtests.
o First factor: Verbal comprehension
Questions for children Questions for adult

How many eyes do you Which is the most common

have? element in air?
Who invented the Who wrote Madame
telephone? Boravy?
Subtests
Digit Span

o Digit Forward:
- examiner read a series of digits at one per
second, then asks the subject to repeat them
Ex: 1-2-3-4-5-6
- If correct, proceeds to the next series, which
is one digit longer, up to maximum length of
nine digits.
Ex: 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9
 o Digit backward:
- a similar procedure is used
- But the examinee must repeat the digits in
reverse order.
6-1-3-4-2-8-5 5-8-2-4-3-1-6

o Digit sequencing:
- The examinee is asked to sort the series digits
into their correct order

6-1-3-4-8 1-3-4-6-8

Measures short-term auditory memory and attention.

 Subtests
Vocabulary

o Examinee is asked to define up to several dozen

words of increasing difficulty while the examiner
writes down each response verbatim
o Measure overall intelligence

Question: What is a cup?

Answer for adult & bright
Answer for children
children
You drink with it. It has a handle, holds
liquids, and you drink
from it.
 Subtests
Arithmetic

o Measures numerical accuracy, reasoning and mental

arithmetic ability.
o Mental arithmetic and story problems play an
important part in the examinees success.
If you have 15 apples and give 7
away, how many are left?

John bought a stereo that was

marked down 15% from the original
sales price of $600. How much did
John pay for the stereo?

How many carrots are there in

the picture?
 Subtests
Comprehension

o Measures common-sense, social knowledge, practical

judgment in social situations, and level of social
maturation, along with the extent of development of
their moral conscience.
o Require an understanding of social and cultural
conventions.
o Measure of social intelligence.
o Asked to explain situations, actions, or activities that
they'd be expected to be familiar with.
o Example: Why do people wear clothes?
Why do we turn out lights when we leave a room?
 Subtests
Similarities

o Evaluate the examinees ability to differentiate

important from unimportant resemblances in
objects, facts, and ideas.
o Measures logical thinking, verbal concept formation
and verbal abstract reasoning.
o Examples:
How are shirts and socks alike?
How are boys and girls are similar?
 Subtests
Letter-Number Sequencing

o Measures attention span, concentration, short-term

auditory recall, processing speed and sequencing
abilities.
o The task involves listening to and remembering a
string of digits and letters read aloud at a speed of
one per second, then recalling the information by
repeating the numbers in chronological order,
followed by the letters in alphabetical order.

o Example : b - 8 - X - 2 - k 4
Response : 2, 4, 8, b, k, X
 Subtests
Picture Concepts

o Measures abstract and categorical reasoning.

o Examinees are asked to look at two (or three) rows of
pictured objects and indicate (by pointing) the single
picture from each row that shares a characteristic in
common with the single picture(s) from the other
row(s).
 Subtests
Block Design

o Examinee must reproduce two-dimensional

geometric designs by proper rotation and placement
three-dimensional colored blocks.
o Demands much more problem-solving and reasoning
ability.
o 14 designs with increasingly difficulty
o Can be scored by accuracy in matching the pattern
and by speed in completing each item
o To obtain high scores-examinee must earn bonus
points on the last six design by completing them
quickly.
 Subtests
Matrix Reasoning
o Measure fluid intelligence, which is capacity to
perform mental operations such as manipulation of
abstract symbols.
o An excellent measure of inductive reasoning based
on figural stimuli
o Examinees are shown coloured matrices or visual
patterns with something missing. The examinee is
asked to select the missing piece from a range of
options.
 Subtests
Object Assembly

o Found only on the WPPSI-III.

o Measures examinees levels of perceptual
organization.
o Examinee must assemble the pieces of a jigsaw
puzzle to form a common object.
 Subtests
Coding

o Measures visual-motor dexterity, associative

nonverbal learning, and nonverbal short-term
memory.
o Fine-motor dexterity, speed, accuracy and ability to
manipulate a pencil contribute to task success;
perceptual organization is also important.
 Subtests
Symbol Search

o Measure of processing speed

o Examinee looks at the target group of symbols.
o Quickly examines a search group of symbols.
o Finally marks a YES or NO box to indicate
whether one or more of the symbols in the target
group occurred within the search group.

YES NO
 Subtests
Cancellation
o Measures visual vigilance/neglect, selective
attention, and speed in processing visual information
in accordance with previous attempts along the same
line.
o Examinees with neuropsychological impairments
perform poorly, esp on the random trial.
o Consists of 2 trials:-
1. Random arrangement of visual stimuli.
2. Clearly structured rows and column of stimuli.
o Separate process scores for the random and the
structured trials are available for comparison in order
to get a total subtest score.
 Subtests
Figure weights

o Measures quantitative and analogical reasoning;

inductive and deductive logic.
o Easy items limit of 20 seconds, hard items allow 40
seconds
 WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE-IV
o Revision of WAIS-3
o Addition of two subtests, simplified test structure
and focus on index scoring
o Abandons bifurcation of intelligence into Verbal IQ
and Performance IQ

o Comprised of 15 subtest, but only 10 core subtest are

needed to obtain the traditional IQ score and the
component index scores.
o The other 5 are deemed supplemental.
o Full scale IQ score- mean =100, Standard deviation= 15
o Scored for 4 index score based on 2 or 3 of the core
subtest.
o They are derived from factor analysis of the subtest,
which revealed
o 4 domains:
1) Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)
2) Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)
3) Working Memory Index (WMI)
4) Processing Speed Index (PSI).
 FOUR INDEX SCORES
1. Verbal Comprehension 3. Working Memory Index
Index (VCI) (WMI)
Similarities Digit span
Vocabulary (.90) Arithmetic
Information (.91) (Ability to attend to information
(Ability to reason verbally ) presented verbally, manipulate that
information in short-term memory
and then formulate a respon.)

2. Perceptual Reasoning Index

(PRI) 4. Processing Speed Index
Block design (PSI)
9Matrix reasoning Symbol search
Visual puzzles Coding
(Ability to find relationships between (Ability to carry out simple cognitive
non verbal stimuli and as well as task under time pressure)
testing their reasoning skills.)
WAIS-IV Standardization
Total sample, N=2,200 adults (age 16-91).
Reliability
The reliability of WAIS-IV is exceptionally good.
Composite split-half reliabilities averaged across all
age groups for the index scores and IQ are:
-VCI .96 - PCI .95
-WMI .94 - PSI .90
Full Scale IQ .98
WAIS-IV also a reliable tool which can be use on
special populations (people with traumatic brain
injury, major depression and etc).
Subtest with stability coefficients in excess of .90
Information (.90) & Vocabulary (.91)
Validity

Good- criterion validity was demonstrated by

correlating the WAIS-IV with mainstream intelligence
tests and other measures.
--> WAIS-IV Full scale correlates strongly with global
scores on other mainstream measures:
i) .94 with WAIS-III
ii) .91 with WISC-IV
iii) .88 with Wechsler Individual Ahievement Test-
II.
WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN-IV

o Was published in 1949 as downward extension of

Wechsler-Bellevue
o Psychometricians noticed a number of flaws in
WISC:
1. absence of nonwhites in the standardization
sample
2. ambiguities of scoring
3. inappropriate items for children
4. absence of females and African Americans in the
pictorial content of items
o WISC-R, WISC-3 and WISC-4 corrected the flaws
o Consists of 15 subtests (10 core subtests for
composite scores and Full Scale IQ)
o 5 subtests as supplemental
o Core subtests: block design, similarities, digit
span, picture concepts, coding, vocabulary, letter-
number sequencing, matrix reasoning,
comprehension and symbol search
o Supplemental subtests: picture completion,
cancellation, information, arithmetic and word
reasoning
o Supplemental tests provides important diagnostic
information: cancelation-vigilance and visual
attention; arithmetic-auditory attention
o Supplemental tests provides important diagnostic
information: cancelation-vigilance and visual
attention; arithmetic-auditory attention

o Supplemental tests are suitable substitution of a

core test: cerebral palsy child-cancellation instead
of coding and picture completion instead of block
design
WISC-IV Standardization
Based on :
- 100 boys and girls (age from 6 1/2 through 16 )
- Total N=2,200.
Reliability
The reliability of WISC-IV is strong compare to previous
editions of test.
IQ and composite scores show split-half and test-retest
reliabilities in the .90s.
Individual subtest posses lower reliability coefficients
ranged from .79 (Cancellation & symbol search) to .90.
(Letter-Number sequencing).
Most reliabilities are high .86(Block Design & Similarities)
and .89 (Vocabulary & Matrix reasoning).
Lower test-retest reliabilities
Validity

Correlation of WISC-IV test scores with its predecessor

and with other Wechsler intelligence test:
- Indicate that strong correlations with comparable
WISC-III subtest, most in high .70s or low .80s.
- The correlation for Full Scale IQ is much higher, r= .89.
Likewise, correlations with WPPSI-III are strong for
comparable subtests and again exceptionally strong for
Full Scale IQ, r=.89.
Convergent validity
Discriminant validity with BarOn Emotional Quotient
Inventory (emotional intelligence is independent of
cognitive intelligence)
STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALES : FIFTH EDITION

Lewis Madison Terman Alfred Binet Thodore Simon

(1877-1956) (1857 - 1911) (18721961)

Revised it from the original Binet-Simon Scale (1905), by

the French psychologist Alfred Binet and his student
Theodore Simon.
Gained support from psychological community especially
Lewis M. Terman to create this new version.
 Binet Scales: History

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 Milestones in the Development of the Stanford-Binet and
Predecessor Tests

YEAR TESTS/AUTHORS COMMENT

1905 Binet & Simon Clinically useful but poorly standardized;
the 30 items did not yield a score!
1908 Binet & Simon Twice as long as the 1905 scale, but still
poorly standardized; introduced a form of
scoring, the mental-age concept.
1911 Binet & Simon Expanded to include adults, but still a
limited scale.
1916 Stanford-Binet Better standardization (N = 1, 000 children
and 400 adults) and IQ concept introduced;
Terman & Merrill too much emphasis upon verbal materials.
 Milestones in the Development of the Stanford-Binet and
Predecessor Tests (Cont)

YEAR TESTS/AUTHORS COMMENT

1937 Stanford-Binet First use of parallel forms and

(2nd Ed ) better standardization; test contained 129
Terman & Merrill items.
1960 Standford-Binet Parallel forms combined into a single form
(3rd Ed ) (L-M); extensive checks on item difficulty
Terman & Merrill (N = 4,500 children); still too much
emphasis on verbal items.
1972 Thorndike Restandardization of the Stanford-Binet
(3rd Ed) on 2,100 subjects.
1986 Standford-Binet Complete restructuring of the test into 15
(4th Ed ) subtests; excellent standardization
Thorndike, Hagen, (N = 5,013 persons ages 2-0 to 23-11)
& Sattler
 The SB5 has the oldest and the most prestigious
pedigree of any individual intelligence tests

Released in 2003 ~ very new test

(Roid,2002,2003).

Therefore, evaluation of this test resemble the

contents and subtest of SB4.

The organization of SB5 was guided by that

each of five factors of intelligence can be
assessed in 2 distinct domains : non-verbal and
verbal.
 The SB5: 10 Subtests

Nonverbal Matrices Tasks

Fluid Reasoning (FR)
Verbal Analogies
Nonverbal Recognize Absurdities in Pictures
Knowledge (KN)
Verbal Vocabulary

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Nonverbal Quantitative Reasoning
Quantitative Reasoning (QR)
Verbal Verbal Quantitative Reasoning
Nonverbal Form Board
Visual/Spatial Reasoning (VS)
Verbal Positions and Directions
Nonverbal Block Pattern Memory 81
Working Memory (WM)
Verbal Sentence Memory
 Form Boards

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 Structure of SB5

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Routing Procedures and Tailored Testing
Routing procedure is used to estimate the general
cognitive ability of the examinee before proceeding to
the remainder of the test.

The routing items are both non-verbal and verbal

items.

Cal State Northridge - Psy 427

It is used to reduce the number administered and save
time, but still without loss of measurement precision.

Back to original age-scale approach (items with

differing content grouped together on basis of
difficulty).
84
 Special features of the SB5
Includes extensive high-end items, designed to asses
the highest level of gifted performance.
Improve low-end items, provide better assessment for
very young children and adults with mental retardation.
Non-verbal IQ items do not require expressive
language, for assessing individuals with limited English,
deafness or communication disorders.
Test items for fairness based on religious as well as
traditional concerns (Including gender, race, ethnicity,
and disability)
Working memory factor consisting of both verbal and
non-verbal subtest~ helping to assess and understand
children with attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder.
 Standardization and Psychometric
properties of the SB5
Suitable for children age 2-
adult age 85 and older.
Sample consist of 4,800
individuals stratified by
gender, ethnic, regional,
and educational levels in
US, based on the year 2000
census.
The reliability of subtests,
indices, and IQ scores is
very strong compared to
other Intelligence tests.
E.g.: VIQ,NVIQ, Full Scale
IQ each have reliabilities in
the .90 and the individual
subtest are in the range of
.70 to .80 (Roid,2002).
The validity supported by it
resemblance to the SB4
tested against the Leiter
International Performance
Scale and The Vineland
Adaptive Behavior Scales
(24 Children samples),~
correlations 0.78 and .70.
DETROIT TEST OF LEARNING APTITUDE-4

Donald D. Hammill, 1999 creates DTLA-4,

It is a recent revision of an instrument first published

in 1935.

The DTLA-4 measures basic abilities, and shows the

effects of language attention, and motor abilities on
test performance.

Designed for school children from 6- 17 years old.

Consist of 10 subtests that form basis for computing

16 composites, including general intelligence,
optimal level and 14 ability areas.
 Optimal Composite (set of 4 highest subtest scores for
an individual),
specific Domain Composites (Verbal, Nonverbal,
Attention-Enhanced, Attention-Reduced, Motor-
Enhanced, Motor-Reduced, Total),
and various Theoretical Composites representing
aspects of different contemporary cognitive theoretical
models (Fluid Intelligence, Crystallized intelligence,
Associative Level, Cognitive Level, Simultaneous
Processing, Successive Processing, Verbal Scale,
Performance Scale, and Total).
 DTLA-4 Subtest
Subtest Task
Word Opposites Provide antonyms -word opposites
Design Sequences Discriminate and remember nonsensical graphic
material
Sentence Imitation Repeat orally presented sentences
Reversed Letters Short-term visual memory and attention
Story Construction Create a logical story from several pictures
Design Reproduction Copy designs from memory
Basic Information Knowledge of everyday facts and information
Symbolic Relations Select from a series of designs the part that was
missing from a previous design.
Word Sequences Repeat a series of unrelated words.
Story Sequences Organize pictorial material into meaningful sequences.
 The standardization (norm)
samples demographics
included 1,350 students
matched US Census in terms
of geographic area, gender,
race, urban/rural, residence,
parental education and
disability.
The reliability with internal
consistency coefficients
generally exceeding .80 for
the subtests and .90 for the
composites, and test-retest
coefficients for both subtest
and composites in the .80s
and .90s.
Concern of DTLA-4 ~
conceptual breakdown
into composites is not
sufficiently supported by
empirical evidence.
There are more
composites than there
are subtests. The
composites will be highly
intercorrelated bcoz each
subtest occurs in several
composites.
need additional empirical
studies of the use of
composites scores.
KAUFMAN ASSESMENT BATTERY FOR CHILDREN-II

Authors of the KABC-II

Alan S. Kaufman Nadeen L. Kaufman

 KABC-II is an 1. Is grounded
individually administered simultaneously in 2
test of cognitive abilities. modern theoretical
models of intelligence.
Designed for children (Luria & CHC)
and adolescence ages
3-18 years old. 2. Consists of different
(Kaufman & Kaufman, subtests and global
2004). scales at each of three
age ranges : 3, 4-6, 7-18.
Providing a simple
description of 3. Provides for an optional
instruments presents a non-verbal scale that
challenge because the also varies by age
test : ~ groups.
KABC-II Subtests, Scales and 2 Models of Intelligence

Consists of 18 subtests 2 models of

(p.g 216) Intelligence (Luria &
Some are age restricted CHC).
Others are supplementary CHC model contains
designed to provide basis a scale that measures
for the assessment of crystallized ability
cognitive functioning. the breadth and depth
of knowledge
Some are used for non-
assimilated from
verbal index.
ones culture.
KABC-II Subtests, Scales and 2 Models of Intelligence

Luria models for: CHC ~ evaluating

children for gifted and
A child from bilingual talented programs
background because these settings
A child suspected emphasize crystallized
language disorders abilities.
A child suspected
autism
A child suspected
deafness and hard of
hearing
 Dual Theoretical Foundation

Name of
Luria Term CHC Term KABC-II Scale
Learning Ability Long-Term Storage & Learning/Glr
Retrieval (Glr)

Sequential Processing Short-Term Memory (Gsm) Sequential/Gsm

Simultaneous Processing Visual Processing (Gv) Simultaneous/Gv

Planning Ability Fluid Reasoning (Gf) Planning/Gf

Crystallized Ability (Gc) Knowledge/Gc

Mental Processing Fluid-Crystallized

Index (MPI) Index (FCI)
Introduction to
the Five Scales
 Sequential/Gsm
Short-Term Memory

Taking in and holding information, and then

using it within a few seconds.
Say these numbers just as I do.

63
Number Recall
Sequential/Gsm 2594
8 9 3 5 2 10
 Simultaneous/Gv
Visual Processing
Perceiving, storing, manipulating, and thinking
with visual patterns.

Block Counting
Simultaneous/Gv
Learning/Glr
Long-Term Retrieval

Storing and efficiently retrieving newly-learned or

previously learned information.

Atlantis
Learning/Glr
Planning/Gf
Fluid Reasoning
Solving novel problems by using reasoning abilities such as
induction and deduction.

Pattern
Reasoning
Planning/Gf
 Knowledge/Gc
Not in Luria Model
Demonstrating the breadth and depth of knowledge
acquired from ones culture.

Verbal
Knowledge
Knowledge/Gc
 Advantages of the KABC-II

Reduces ethnic score differences

K-ABC led the field in this area
Test designed to reduce score differences

Captures the childs interest

Game-like tasks that engage the child
Accessible to all children

Blends science and clinical expertise

Based on theory
Provides rich assessment of processing
Collects important qualitative information
 Goals of the KABC-II
Keep the positives of the original K-ABC and
eliminate its negatives
Measure multiple ability constructs
Expand age range to 3-18 years
Provide an assessment that is fair and flexible
Offer effective preschool assessment
Facilitate neuropsychological assessment
Offer effective clinical assessment
Administration Times for Core Battery

MPI FCI
Ages Luria Model CHC Model

3-4 30 Minutes 40 Minutes

5 40 Minutes 50 Minutes

6 50 Minutes 60 Minutes

7-18 55 Minutes 70 Minutes

KABC-II Standardizations, Reliability and Validity

Consisted of 3,025 The norm sample also

examinees ages 3-18
years old.
Tested at 127 sites in 39
states and the District of
Columbia.
Consequently, the norm The split-half reliability of
sample closely aligned
to national trends for
educational level, ethnic
group, gender and so
on.
resembles national
trends for children with
special needs such as
learning disability and so
on.
the global scales is
superb: .95 to .97 for the
MPI and FCI, and .90 to
.92 for the NVI.
Reliability for 5 scales is
.88 to .93.
KABC-II Standardizations, Reliability and Validity

Reliability of the
individual subtests is Some criticism was
more variable, ranging expressed related to two
from a low of .69 to a distinct interpretive
high of .93. models for subscales
In terms of validity, the being presented, yet
test presents strong each subscale simply
evidence in terms of comprising renamed
content, relationships versions of each other.
within the test itself, and
relationships with other
tests.
KBIT-2
Develop by Alan Kaufman
Easily administered screening measure of intelligence by developing the K-
BIT (Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test) and recently released in 2nd edition K-
BIT2 (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004)
KBIT-2
KBIT-2 consists of a verbal scale includes two type of items
i. Verbal knowledge and Riddles
ii. Nonverbal or Fluid Scale consists of Matrices item (2 X 2 and 3
X 3 figural analogies)
KBIT 2 normed for examinees ages 4 to 90 and can be
administered in approximately 20 minutes.
 KBIT-2
KBIT-2 is mainly a screening test useful in signaling the
need for more extensive assessment.
Test author suggest a number of uses for the
instrument, including the following:-
Provide a quick estimate of intelligence where accuracy
is not essential
Estimate verbal VS nonverbal intelligence in children or
adults
Reevaluate intellectual status of previously tested
examinees
Screen students who may benefit from placement in gifted
programs
Screen high-risk students who may need further
assessment
Obtain a quick estimate of intelligence in adult treatment or
institutional settings
Individual Test of Achievement

-Focus on Individual achievement tests administered one-

on-one, therefore better suited for the appraisal of
learning problems
-More dozen individually administered intelligence test
exist, but only a few are widely used in clinical and
educational assessment.
-A number of prominent individual achievement tests are
summarized in Table 13. (Page 221).
-Owing to limitations of space, Author selected one test, the
KTEA-II.
 Individual Test of Achievement

-co-normed with the

Kaufman Test of
Educational
AchievementSecond
Edition (KTEAII) Brief
Form for ages 2690.
-Consists of 8 subtests
in four areas.
KTEA-II
KTEA-II designed to appraise student progress in academic areas
such as reading, mathematics, written language, and oral expression.
These instruments are essential to the evaluation of learning
disabilities.
What are Learning Disabilities?
 Nature and Assessment of Learning
Disabilities
Because individual intelligence and achievement tests are
foundational to the assessment of learning disabilities(LD).
LD has been understood In terms of a definition embedded in
federal law.
In 1975, Congress passed Public Law 94-142, the Education for
All Handicapped Children Act and of the provisions was a
definition of LD as follows:-
Education for All Handicapped Children
Act
the terms used in the law.
"Specific learning disability" is defined as follows:
The term "specific learning disability" means a disorder in one or more of the
basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language,
spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to
listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.
Disorders included. Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities,
brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.
Disorders not included. Such term does not include a learning problem that is
primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of
emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
 IDEA 2014
specific achievement in one
More than half of the states in
or more of these seven areas:
the United States now follow Oral expression
this model. Listening Comprehension
Specifically, candidates for Written expression
an LD diagnosis must Basic reading skill
demonstrate a severe Reading comprehension
Mathematics calculation
discrepancy between general
Mathematics Reasoning
ability (intelligence) and
The New Face of LD: Responses to
Intervention
Although difficult to define, a learning disability may signify a
discrepancy between general ability and specific achievement,
Two broad forms of LD are recognized:
1) Dyslexia or verbal learning disability, and
2) Right Hemisphere or Nonverbal learning disability
See table 15 page 227
 Characteristics of Two Broad Categories of Learning
Disability
Source : Based on Forster, A. (1994). Learning Disabilities. In R.J.Sternbeg (Ed), Encyclopedia of human
intelligence, New York: Macmillan.

Dyslexia or Verbal Learning Right Hemisphere or Nonverbal

Diability Learning Disability
Primary Manifestation
-Unexpected difficulty in learning to read or spell -Poor skills in Mathematics, handwriting, or social
cognition
Fundamental Deficiency
-Problems in phonological coding (associating Problems in spatial cognition (visuospatial perception
sounds with letter combinations) of relationships)
Physiological Correlates
-Subtle anomalies in the left cerebral hemisphere Likely origin in right cerebral hemisphere dysfunction
(revealed by brains scans and EEG studies)
Relative Prevalence
About 90% of all LD cases About 10% of all LD cases
Ratio of boys to girls
3:1 or 4:1 1:1
By nature, I am not an optimist,
though I try to act as if I am(Dr
Howard Gardner).