Chapter 7:

Deformation & Strengthening

Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Why are the number of dislocations present
greatest in metals?

How are strength and dislocation motion related?

Why does heating alter strength and other properties?

Chapter 7 - 1
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
Metals (Cu, Al):
+ + + + + + + +
Dislocation motion easiest + + + + + + + +
- non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
- close-packed directions ion cores
electron cloud
for slip
Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion difficult
- directional (angular) bonding

Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion difficult
- + - + - + -
- need to avoid nearest
neighbors of like sign (- and +) + - + - + - +

Chapter 7 - 2
 Dislocation Motion

https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Structure/linear_defects.htm

Chapter 7 - 3
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocation motion & plastic deformation
Metals - plastic deformation occurs by slip an edge
dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) slides over
adjacent plane half-planes of atoms.

Fig. 7.1, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (Adapted from A. G.

If dislocations can't move, Guy, Essentials of Materials Science, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1976, p. 153.)

plastic deformation doesn't occur! Chapter 7 - 4

 Dislocation Motion

Lnea de
dislocacin
Edge dislocation
(Dislocacin de borde)

A edge dislocation moves along

a slip plane in a slip direction Fig. 7.2, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(Adapted from H. W. Hayden, W. G. Moffatt,

perpendicular to the dislocation and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of

Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p.

line 70. Copyright 1965 by John Wiley & Sons,

New York. Reprinted by permission of John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
The slip direction is the same as
the Burgers vector direction

Chapter 7 - 5
 Dislocation Motion

A screw dislocation moves along a slip plane in a slip

direction parallel to the dislocation line
The slip direction is perpendicular to Burgers vector
direction (vector de Burgers es perpendicular a la lnea
de la dislocacin)
Screw dislocation

Fig. 7.2, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Adapted from H. W. Hayden, W. G. Moffatt,
and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p.
70. Copyright 1965 by John Wiley & Sons,
New York. Reprinted by permission of John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

Chapter 7 - 6
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
Slip plane - plane on which easiest slippage occurs
Highest planar densities (and large interplanar spacings)
Slip directions - directions of movement
Highest linear densities

Fig. 7.6, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
For BCC & HCP there are other slip systems.
Chapter 7 - 7
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
Resolved shear stress, R
results from applied tensile stresses
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: = F/A stress: R =Fs /A s and R
F slip plane R = FS /AS
A R
normal, ns
AS F cos A/cos
FS
F nS

A
R FS AS
F

Chapter 7 - 8
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
Condition for dislocation motion:

Ease of dislocation motion depends typically

on crystallographic orientation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa

R = 0 R = /2 R = 0
= 90 = 45 = 90
= 45

maximum at = = 45
Chapter 7 - 9
Single Crystal Slip

Fig. 7.9, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.
(From C. F. Elam, The
Distortion of Metal Crystals,
Oxford University Press,
London, 1935.)

Fig. 7.8, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 7 - 10
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
= 60
crss = 20.7 MPa
= 35

Adapted from
Fig. 7.7,
Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

= 45 MPa
So the applied stress of 45 MPa will not cause the
crystal to yield.
Chapter 7 - 11
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
yield stress, y)?

So for deformation to occur the applied stress must

be greater than or equal to the yield stress

Chapter 7 - 12
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
Polycrystals stronger than
single crystals grain
boundaries are barriers
to dislocation motion.
Adapted from Fig.
Slip planes & directions 7.10, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(, ) change from one (Photomicrograph
courtesy of C. Brady,
grain to another. National Bureau of
Standards [now the
National Institute of
R will vary from one Standards and
Technology,
grain to another. Gaithersburg, MD].)

The grain with the

largest R yields first.

Other (less favorably

oriented) grains 300 m
yield later.
Chapter 7 - 13
 Anisotropy in y
Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(from W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. I,
Structure, p. 140, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1964.)

rolling direction
235 m
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
equiaxed & orientation and shape.
randomly oriented.

Chapter 7 - 14
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. Fig. 7.14, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(From L. H. Van Vlack, A Textbook of Materials
Smaller grain size: Technology, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1973.
Reproduced with the permission of the Estate of
Lawrence H. Van Vlack.)
more barriers to slip.

Hall-Petch Equation:

Chapter 7 - 15
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Form Solid Solutions

Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate lattice strains.

These strains can act as barriers to dislocation motion.
Smaller substitutional Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

Chapter 7 - 16
 Lattice Strains Around Dislocations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strengthening_mechanisms_of_materials

Chapter 7 - 17
Lattice Strains Around Dislocations

Fig. 7.4, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Adapted from W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff,
The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
p. 140, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1964.)

Chapter 7 - 18
 Strengthening by Solid
Solution Alloying
Small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations
(regions of compressive strains) - partial cancellation of
dislocation compressive strains and impurity atom tensile strains
Reduce mobility of dislocations and increase strength

Fig. 7.17, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 7 - 19
 Strengthening by Solid
Solution Alloying
Large impurities tend to concentrate at
dislocations (regions of tensile strains)

Fig. 7.18, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 7 - 20
VMSE Solid-Solution Strengthening Tutorial

Chapter 7 - 21
 Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)

180

Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.
400 7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister &
120 Rethwisch 9e.
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

Empirical relation:
Alloying increases y and TS.

Chapter 7 - 22
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Precipitation Strengthening
Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
advances but
precipitates act as
S pinning sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

Result:

Chapter 7 - 23
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Chapter-opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.
(Courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and
A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig. 11.27,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(Courtesy of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller, Boeing
Commercial Airplane
Company.)

1.5m
Chapter 7 - 24
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Cold Work (Strain Hardening)
Deformation at room temperature (for most metals).
Common forming operations reduce the cross-sectional
area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister & roll
Rethwisch 9e.
-Drawing force -Extrusion
Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die

Chapter 7 - 25
 Dislocation Structures Change
During Cold Working
Dislocation structure in Ti after cold working.
Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Fig. 4.7, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.
(Courtesy of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan Technological
University.)

Chapter 7 - 26
 Dislocation Density Increases
During Cold Working
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
Carefully grown single crystals
ca. 103 mm-2
Deforming sample increases density
109-1010 mm-2
Heat treatment reduces density
105-106 mm-2

Yield stress increases as d increases:

Chapter 7 - 27
 Lattice Strain Interactions
Between Dislocations

Fig. 7.5, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 7 - 28
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
Yield strength (y) increases.
Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

low carbon steel

Chapter 7 - 29
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility after cold working Cu?

Copper
Cold
Work

Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm

Chapter 7 - 30
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?

60

tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

y = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7%

Fig. 7.19, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Irons
and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th edition, B. Bardes (Editor), 1978; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous
Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th edition, H. Baker (Managing Editor), 1979. Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.]
Chapter 7 - 31
 Effect of Heat Treating After Cold Working
1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
Effects of cold work are nullified!
annealing temperature (C)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Three Annealing stages:
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength 1. Recovery

ductility (%EL)
50 2. Recrystallization
500
40 3. Grain Growth

400 30
Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
ductility 20 (Adapted from G. Sachs and K. R. Van Horn,
Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy
300 and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, 1940.
Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.)

Chapter 7 - 32
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery
Reduction of dislocation density by annihilation.
Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
Scenario 2
3. Climbed disl. can now R
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to climb
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
cant move to the right

Chapter 7 - 33
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. Recrystallization
New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from Fig.

7.21 (a),(b),
Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(Photomicrographs
courtesy of J.E.
Burke, General
Electric Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.

Chapter 7 - 34
 As Recrystallization Continues
All cold-worked grains are eventually consumed/replaced.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from Fig.

7.21 (c),(d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(Photomicrographs
courtesy of J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

Chapter 7 - 35
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
3. Grain Growth
At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig.
9.21 (d),(e), Callister
& Rethwisch 9e.
(Photomicrographs
courtesy of J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580C 580C
coefficient dependent
Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t.
Chapter 7 - 36
 TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Adapted from G. Sachs and K. R. Van Horn,
Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, 1940.
Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.)

Chapter 7 - 37
 Recrystallization Temperature
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature
at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm

For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:

%CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW
Purity of metal -- TR decreases with
increasing purity

Chapter 7 - 38
Diameter Reduction Procedure -
Problem
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 10 mm (0.39 in) in
diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The
circular cross section will be maintained during
deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess
of 380 MPa (55,000 psi) and a ductility of at least 15
%EL are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter
must be 7.5 mm (0.30 in). Explain how this may be
accomplished.

Chapter 7 - 39
 Diameter Reduction Procedure -
Solution
What are the consequences of directly drawing
to the final diameter?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 10 mm Df = 7.5 mm

Chapter 7 - 40
 Diameter Reduction Procedure
Solution (Cont.)

420 540

For %CW = 43.8% Fig. 7.19, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

y = 420 MPa [Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection:
Irons and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th edition, B. Bardes (Editor), 1978;
and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous
TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th edition, H. Baker
(Managing Editor), 1979. Reproduced by permission of ASM
%EL = 6 < 15 International, Materials Park, OH.]

This doesnt satisfy criteria what other options are possible?

Chapter 7 - 41
 Diameter Reduction Procedure
Solution (cont.)

380 15

12 27

Fig. 7.19, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

[Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW Selection: Irons and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th edition, B.
Bardes (Editor), 1978; and Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and

For %EL > 15 < 27 %CW Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th edition, H. Baker
(Managing Editor), 1979. Reproduced by
permission of ASM International, Materials Park,
OH.]

our working range is limited to 12 < %CW < 27

Chapter 7 - 42
 Diameter Reduction Procedure
Solution (cont.)
Cold work, then anneal, then cold work again
For objective we need a cold work of 12 < %CW < 27
Well use 20 %CW
Diameter after first cold work stage (but before 2nd
cold work stage) is calculated as follows:

Intermediate diameter =

Chapter 7 - 43
 Diameter Reduction Procedure
Summary
Stage 1: Cold work reduce diameter from 10 mm to 8.39 mm

Stage 2: Heat treat (allow recrystallization)

Stage 3: Cold work reduce diameter from 8.39 mm to 7.5 mm

Fig 7.19

Therefore, all criteria satisfied

Chapter 7 - 44
 Cold Working vs. Hot Working

Hot working deformation above TR

Cold working deformation below TR

Chapter 7 - 45
 Grain Size Influences Properties

Metals having small grains relatively strong

and tough at low temperatures

Metals having large grains good creep

resistance at relatively high temperatures

Chapter 7 - 46
 Summary

Dislocations are observed primarily in metals

and alloys.
Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
Strength of metals may be increased by:
-- decreasing grain size
-- solid solution strengthening
-- precipitate hardening
-- cold working
A cold-worked metal that is heat treated may experience
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth its properties
will be altered.

Chapter 7 - 47
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading: Capitulo 7 del Callister versin espaol

Core Problems: Resolver ejercicios Callister en

espaol:
7.1; 7.5;7.10; 7.11; 7.14; 7.19; 7.20; 7.26; 7.27;
7.34; 7.36; 7.38; 7.43.

Self-help Problems: revisar archivo titulado

Probelams que ilustran el clculo de los ngulos

Chapter 7 - 48