35 years of Cognitive Linguistics

Session 8: Cognitive Grammar

Martin Hilpert
 your questions
constituency
relational expressions
salience
schema
semantic pole / phonological pole
open-ended knowledge systems
Langacker 1987 Langacker 1991
usage-based linguistics
 ideas from Cognitive Grammar,
now widely held in Cognitive Linguistics
 Knowledge of language is knowledge of a
network of symbolic units that pair sounds
with meanings.
 Lexicon and grammar are not distinct
modules: there is a continuum from very
concrete symbols (chair, dog) to very
schematic symbols (subject, relative clause).
 Knowledge of language is usage-based:
speakers know symbolic units because they
make abstractions over usage events.
 Langackers project: a cognitive grammar

All linguistic structures are meaningful.

subject, noun, preposition, relative clause, progressive
aspect, infinitive, past tense, finiteness, modal auxiliary, ...
The meanings of these structures can be fully
described in cognitive terms.

to walk

the preposition into

the present progressive a walk
 job of the cognitive grammarian
Describe all grammatical structures in terms of
their meanings.
Analyze those meanings in terms of general
cognitive processes.
 the content requirement
The stuff grammars are made of:
1. sounds and structures youve heard before
tree, I dont know, Could you pass the salt?
2. schemas on the basis of the sounds and
structures that youve heard before
NOUN, SUB VP, AUX, SUB, VP
3. categorizing relationships between 1 and 2
tree is a NOUN
 the content requirement
The only units permitted in the grammar of a
language are (i) semantic, phonological, and symbolic
structures that occur overtly in linguistic expressions;
(ii) structures that are schematic for the those in (i);
and (iii) categorizing relationships involving the
structures in (i) and (ii).
technical terms
 domains
All linguistic units are context-dependent to some
degree. A context for that characterization of a
semantic unit is referred to as a domain. Domains
are necessarily cognitive entities: mental
experiences, representational spaces, concepts, or
conceptual complexes.
 profile and base
All expressions are characterized semantically by the
imposition of a profile on a base.
Linguistic expressions evoke a frame (base) and
highlight a part of that frame (profile).
 trajectory and landmark
A relational predication elevates one of its
participants to the status of figure. I refer to this
participant as its trajector; other salient participants
are referred to as landmarks.

the preposition into

 thing
a region in some domain of conceptual space
a noun is a symbolic structure that designates a
thing
cube (a bounded region in 3D space)
moment (a bounded region in time)
paragraph (a portion of a written work)
B-flat (a point-like region on the musical scale)
electricity (a bounded region in the space of physical
characteristics)
 relation
relational expressions profile the
interconnections among conceived entities
prepositions (above)
adjectives (red)
adverbs (quickly)
verbs (run)
cube
above
into
grow
 construal
Construal is our ability to conceive and portray the
same situation in alternate ways. Every lexical and
grammatical element incorporates, as an inherent
aspect of its meaning, a certain way of construing the
conceptual content evoked.
 construal
The table is under the lamp.
The lamp is over the table.
reversal of trajectory and landmark

lm tr

tr lm

The table is under the lamp. The lamp is above the table.
 construal
The neighbors are gone.
The neighbors are away.
same profile, different base
 construal
Bill sent a walrus to Joyce.
Bill sent Joyce a walrus.
same base, different profiles
 construal

different levels of schematicity

The boy opened the door.
The boy did something.
Something happened.
 construal
I saw how the bridge collapsed.
I saw the collapse of the bridge.
process vs. thing
sequential scanning vs. summary scanning

The same content can be construed as either a

process or a non-processual relationship, depending
on whether it is accessed via sequential scanning or
summary scanning.
summary scanning
sequential scanning
 linguistic units
The term unit is employed in a technical sense to
indicate a thoroughly mastered structure, i.e. a
cognitive routine.
 linguistic units
Only three basic types of units are posited:
semantic, phonological, and symbolic. A symbolic
unit is said to be bipolar, consisting of a semantic
unit defining one pole and a phonological pole
defining the other.
 linguistic units
Symbolic units vary along the parameters of
complexity and specificity.
Complexity:

cat blackboard football coach

 linguistic units
Symbolic units vary along the parameters of
complexity and specificity.
Schematicity:

tree noun verb

 linguistic units
Units are conventionalized:

conventionalized unit novel expression

 linguistic units
Units can be combined:

composite expression conventionalized schema

 constituency
the order in which symbolic structures are
progressively assembled into larger and larger
composite expressions

above the table the lamp above the table

 elaboration
It is typical in a construction for one
component structure to contain a schematic
substructure which the other component
serves to elaborate , i.e. characterize in finer-
grained detail.
A schematic element elaborated by another
component is called an elaboration site, or e-
site for short.
 elaboration
Prepositions such as near occur with nominals
that provide a more detailed description of
the speakers idea:
the door elaborates near
 elaboration
Elaboration sites: open slots in complex
constructions
the nominal in a prepositional phrase
near the door
the noun in a noun phrase with a determiner
the door
the object nominal in a transitive verb phrase
open the door
 grounding
Grounding is proposed as a technical term in
Cognitive Grammar to characterize grammatical
predications that indicate the relationship of a
designated entity to the ground or situation of speech,
including the speech event itself, its participants, and
their respective spheres of knowledge.
Grounding predications are obligatory grammatical
elements needed to turn nouns into full nominals, and
verbs into finite clauses.
 grounding elements
nominal:
a, the, this, my, his, some, many, ...
(in)definiteness, quantification, deixis
 grounding elements
verbal:
-s, -ed, would, will, be ing, ...
clausal grounding is mainly concerned with
the status of events with respect to their
actual or potential occurrence
When did it take place? Are we sure that it
took place? How did it take place?
Modality, Aspect, Tense
Summing up
usage-based linguistics
 general cognitive processes
figure-ground perception
seeing things and relations instead of a chaotic mixture of
impressions
categorization
seeing a word like cat as a noun
schematization
seeing the similarities between He ate it and Mary baked a
cake
automatization
remembering pencil sharpener as a unit
perspective-taking
adopt different points of view upon hearing The cat was chased
away vs. The dog chased the cat away
 Can we come up with a description of
grammar that is based exclusively on sounds
and meanings?

nouns, verbs, the present tense, the

progressive aspect, relative clauses,
demonstratives, accusative case, ...
See you next time!
martin.hilpert@unine.ch