LEARNING

Fiza Rehman
Clinical Psychologist
Visiting Lecturer
 INTRODUCTION
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience.
Types of Learning:
Trial & Error
Observational Learning
Learning by Conditioning (Association)
 Trial and Error
Trial and error is a fundamental method of problem solving. It is
characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success,
or until the agent stops trying.
 Observational Learning
Concept given by Albert Bandura
Observational learning occurs as a result of witnessing another person.
It is a form of social learning which requires a social model such as a
parent, sibling, friend, or teacher etc. with surroundings.
 Observational Learning
Observational Learning occurs in 4 steps
1. Observing attentively
2. Remembering, retaining
3. Reproducing
4. Motivated to learn and continue
 Conditioning
Also called learning by association
Two types of conditioning
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning
 Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a
response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that
response.
 Contd.
Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the
response of interest.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response
without having been learned.
Unconditioned response (UCR): A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g.,
salivation at the smell of food).
Conditioned stimulus (CS): A once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned
stimulus.
Conditioned response (CR): A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral
stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell)
 Principles of Classical Conditioning

Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization
 Extinction
If the CS is presented without the US, and this process is repeated
continuously, the CS will eventually stop eliciting a CR. This means that the
CR has been "extinguished.
 Spontaneous Recovery
Spontaneous recovery is defined as the reappearance of a previously
extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.
 Stimulus Discrimination
Stimulus Discrimination is defined as the ability to discriminate between
two stimuli.
 Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Generalization occur when something closely resembling a CS
causes the CR.
 Operant Conditioning
Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened,
depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. (B.F. Skinner)
Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened);
behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e.,
weakened).
 Experiment
Skinner placed a hungry rat in a box. The box contained a lever on the side,
and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever.
Immediately it did so, a food pellet would drop into a container next to the
lever.
The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being
put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever
ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.
 Basic Concepts
Reinforcement: The process by which a stimulus increases the probability
that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

Reinforcer: Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding

behavior will occur again.
 Types of Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
 Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an
individual finds rewarding.
 Negative Reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This
is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse
stimulus which is rewarding. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior
because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.
 Punishment
Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed
to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive
event that decreases the behavior that it follows
Punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus
Assignment
 Schedules of Reinforcements
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
Partial Reinforcement Schedule
Fixed Ratio Schedule
Variable Ratio Schedule