Ch15 Lecture 3e

Ch 15
Freshwater Resources:
Natural Systems,
Human Impact, and
Conservation
Part 2: Environmental Issues
and the Search for Solutions
PowerPoint Slides prepared by
Jay Withgott and Heidi Marcum
Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
This lecture will help you understand:
Water and the hydrologic cycle

Waters distribution on Earth
Freshwater ecosystems
Use and alteration of freshwater
systems
Problems of water supply and
solutions
Problems of water quality and
solutions
How wastewater is treated

Plumbing the Colorado River
The 2,330 km Colorado River begins in

the Rocky Mountains and trickles into
the Gulf of California
Dams and irrigation provide water to
millions of people in 7 states
Las Vegas, Nevada, is growing rapidly,
and needs more water
The other states are allowing Las Vegas
to drill for underground water, even
though it threatens the areas ecology
and people

Freshwater systems
Water may seem abundant, but drinkable water is rare
Freshwater = relatively pure, with few dissolved
salts
- Only 25% of Earths water is fresh
- Most freshwater is tied up in glaciers and ice caps

Rivers and streams wind through
landscapes
Water from rain, snowmelt, or springs forms streams,

creeks, or brooks
These merge into rivers, and eventually reaches the ocean
- Tributary = a smaller river slowing into a larger one
- Watershed = the area of land drained by a river and
its tributaries

Rivers shape the landscape
If there is a large bend in the

river, the force of the water
cuts through the land
- Oxbow = an extreme
bend in a river
- Oxbow lake = the bend is
cut off and remains as an
isolated, U-shaped body
of water

A river may shift course
Floodplain = areas nearest to the rivers course that are

flooded periodically
- Frequent deposition of silt makes floodplain soils
fertile
Riparian = riverside areas that are productive and
species-rich
Water of rivers and streams hosts diverse ecological
communities

Wetlands include marshes, swamps, and
bogs
Wetlands = systems that combine
elements of freshwater and dry land
Freshwater marshes = shallow
water allows plants to grow above
the waters surface
Swamps = shallow water that
occurs in forested areas
- Can be created by beavers
Bogs = ponds covered in thick
floating mats of vegetation
- A stage in aquatic succession

Wetlands are valuable
Wetlands are extremely valuable for wildlife

They slow runoff
- Reduce flooding
- Recharge aquifers
- Filter pollutants
People have drained wetlands, mostly for agriculture
- Southern Canada and the U.S. have lost more than half
of their wetlands

Lakes and ponds are ecologically diverse
Lakes and ponds are bodies of open, standing water

Littoral zone = region ringing the edge of a water body
Benthic zone = extends along the entire bottom of the
water body
- Home to many invertebrates
Limnetic zone = open portions of the lake or pond where
the sunlight penetrates the shallow waters
Profundal zone = water that sunlight does not reach
- Supports fewer animals because there is less oxygen

A typical lake

Lakes vary in their nutrients and oxygen
Oligotrophic lakes and ponds = have low nutrient and

high oxygen conditions
Eutrophic lakes and ponds = have high nutrient and low
oxygen conditions
Eventually, water bodies fill completely in through the
process of succession
Inland seas = large lakes that hold so much water, their
biota is adapted to open water

Groundwater plays a key role
Groundwater = any precipitation that does not evaporate,

flow into waterways, or get taken up by organisms
- Groundwater makes up one fifth of the Earths
freshwater supply
Aquifers = Porous sponge-like formations of rock, sand, or
gravel that hold groundwater
Zone of aeration = pore spaces are partially filled with water
Zone of saturation = spaces are completely filled with water
Water table = boundary between the two zones
Aquifer recharge zone = any area where water infiltrates
Earths surface and reaches aquifers

A typical aquifer

There are two categories of aquifers
Confined or artesian = water-bearing, porous rocks

are trapped between layers of less permeable
substrate (i.e., clay)
- Is under a lot of pressure
Unconfined aquifer = no upper layer to confine it
- Readily recharged by surface water
Groundwater becomes surface water through springs
or human-drilled wells
Groundwater may be ancient: the average age is
1,400 years

The Ogallala Aquifer
The worlds largest

known aquifer
Underlies the Great
Plains of the U.S.
Its water has allowed
farmers to create the
most bountiful grain-
producing region in the
world

Water is unequally distributed across Earths
surface
Different regions possess vastly different amounts of

groundwater, surface water, and precipitation
Many areas with high population density are water-
poor and face serious water shortages
Water is distributed unevenly in time, too
Monsoon seasons bring concentrated storms

- Half a regions annual rain may fall in a few hours
People erect dams to store water

Climate change will cause water shortages
Climate change will cause

- Altered precipitation patterns
- Melting glaciers
- Early season runoff
- Intensified droughts
- Flooding
Increasing probability that there
will be still less water for more
people

How we use water
We have achieved impressive engineering

accomplishments to harness freshwater sources
- 60 % of the worlds largest 227 rivers have been
strongly or moderately affected
- Dams, canals, and diversions
Consumption of water in most of the world is
unsustainable
- We are depleting many sources of surface water and
groundwater

Water supplies houses, agriculture, and
industry
Proportions of these three types of use vary
dramatically among nations
- Arid countries use water for agriculture
- Developed countries use water for industry

Different types of water use
Consumptive use = water is removed from an aquifer or

surface water body, and is not returned
Non-consumptive use = does not remove, or only
temporarily removes, water from an aquifer or surface
water
- Electricity generation at hydroelectric dams

We have erected thousands of dams
Dam = any obstruction placed in a river or stream to

block the flow of water so that water can be stored in
a reservoir
- To prevent floods, provide drinking water, allow
irrigation, and generate electricity
- 45,000 large dams have been erected in more than
140 nations
Only a few major rivers remain undammed
- In remote regions of Canada, Alaska, and Russia

A typical dam

Chinas Three Gorges Dam
The dam, on the Yangtze

River, is the largest in the
world
- 186 m (610 feet) high, 2
km (1.3 mi) wide
- Its reservoir stretches for
616 km (385 mi)
- Provides flood control,
passage for boats, and
electricity

Drawbacks of the Three Gorges Dam
Cost $25 billion to build

Is flooding 22 cities and the homes of
1.13 million people
Submerging 10,000-year-old
archaeological sites
Drowning farmland and wildlife habitat
Tidal marshes at the Yangtzes mouth
are eroding
Pollutants will be trapped
China will spend $5 billion to build
sewage treatment plants

Benefits and drawbacks of dams
Benefits: Drawbacks:
- Power generation - Habitat alteration
- Emission reduction - Fisheries declines
- Crop irrigation - Population
- Drinking water displacement
- Flood control - Sediment capture
- Shipping - Disruption of flooding
- New recreational - Risk of failure
opportunities - Lost recreational
opportunities
Some dams are being removed
Some people feel that the cost of dams outweighs their
benefits
- They are pushing to dismantle dams
Rivers with dismantled dams
- Have restored riparian ecosystems
- Reestablished fisheries
- Revived river recreation
500 dams have been removed in the U.S.
- Property owners who opposed the removal change
their minds once they see the healthy river

Dikes and levees are meant to control floods
Flooding is a normal, natural process

- Floodwaters spread nutrient-rich sediments over
large areas
Floods also do tremendous damage to property
Dikes and levees (long, raised mounds of earth) along
the banks of rivers hold rising waters in channels
- The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has
constructed thousands of miles of levees
Levees can make floods worse by forcing water to
stay in channels and overflow

We divert and deplete surface water
People have long

diverted water to farm
fields, homes, and
cities
The once mighty
Colorado River has
been extensively
dammed and diverted

The Colorado River is heavily diverted
- What water is left after all the diversions
comprises just a trickle into the Gulf of California
- On some days, water does not reach the gulf
- Diversion has drastically altered the rivers
ecology

The Aral Sea
Once the fourth-largest lake on Earth
- It has lost more than 80% of its
volume in just 45 years
- The two rivers leading into the
Aral Sea were diverted to
irrigate cotton fields
Consequences of a shrinking sea
- 60,000 fishing jobs are gone
- Pesticide-laden dust from the
lake bed is blown into the air
- The cotton cannot bring back the
regions economy
Can the Aral Sea be saved?
People may have

begun saving the
northern part of the
Aral Sea

Inefficient irrigation wastes water
Today, 70% more water is withdrawn for irrigation

than in 1960
- The amount of irrigated land has doubled
- Crop yields can double

Most irrigation is highly inefficient
Only 45% of water is absorbed by crops via flood

and furrow irrigation
Overirrigation leads to waterlogging, salinization, and
lost farming income
Most national governments subsidize irrigation
Water mining = withdrawing water faster than it can
be replenished

Areas where water use exceeds supply

We are depleting groundwater
Groundwater is easily depleted

- Aquifers recharge slowly
- 1/3 of world population relies on groundwater
As aquifers become depleted
- Water tables drop
- Salt water intrudes in coastal areas
- Sinkholes = areas where ground gives way unexpectedly
- Some cities (Venice, Mexico City) are slowly sinking
- Wetlands dry up
Will we see a future of water wars?
Freshwater depletion leads to shortages, which can lead

to conflict
- 261 major rivers cross national borders
- Water is a key element in hostilities among Israel,
Palestinians, and neighboring countries
Many nations have cooperated with neighbors to resolve
disputes

Solutions can address supply or demand
We can either increase supply or reduce demand
Lowering demand
- Politically difficult in the short term
- Offers better economic returns
- Causes less ecological and social damage
Increasing supply
- Water can be transported through pipes and aqueducts
- It can be forcibly appropriated from weak
communities

Desalinization makes more water
Desalinization = the removal of salt from seawater or

other water of marginal quality
- Distilling = hastens evaporation and condenses the
vapor
- Reverse osmosis = forces water through membranes
to filter out salts
Desalinization facilities operate mostly in the arid Middle
East
It is expensive, requires fossil fuels, and produces
concentrated salty water

The worlds largest reverse osmosis plant
Near Yuma, Arizona

Intended to reduce the
salinity of irrigation
runoff
Too expensive to operate
and closed after 8 months

Agricultural demand can be reduced
Look first for ways to decrease agricultural demand

- Lining irrigation canals
- Low-pressure spray irrigation that spray water
downward
- Drip irrigation systems that target individual plants
- Match crops to land and climate
- Selective breeding and genetic modification to raise
crops that require less water

Residential demand can be reduced
Install low-flow faucets,

showerheads, washing
machines, and toilets
Water lawns at night, when
evaporation is minimal
Eat less meat
Xeriscaping = landscaping
using plants adapted to arid
conditions

Industrial demand can be reduced
Shift to processes that use less water

- Wastewater recycling
- Excess surface water runoff used for recharging
aquifers
- Patching leaky pipes
- Auditing industries
- Promoting conservation/education

Economic approaches to water conservation
End government subsidies of inefficient practices
- Let the price of water reflect its true cost of extraction
Industrial uses are more profitable than agricultural
- Less developed countries suffer
Privatization of water supplies
- May improve efficiency
- Firms have little incentive to provide access to the
poor
Decentralization of water control may conserve water
- Shift control to the local level
Freshwater pollution and its control
Water for human consumption and other organisms
needs to be
- Disease-free
- Nontoxic
Half of the worlds major rivers are seriously depleted
and polluted
- They poison surrounding ecosystems
- Threaten the health and livelihood of people
The invisible pollution of groundwater has been called a
covert crisis

Nutrient pollution
Pollution = the release of matter or energy into the
environment that causes undesirable impacts on the
health and well-being of humans or other organisms
Nutrient pollution from fertilizers, farms, sewage,
lawns, golf courses
- Leads to eutrophication
Solutions
- Phosphate-free detergents
- Planting vegetation to increase nutrient uptake
- Treat wastewater
- Reduce fertilizer application
Eutrophication is a natural process, but
Human activities dramatically increase the rate at which it

occurs

Pathogens and waterborne diseases
Enters water supply via inadequately treated human

waste and animal waste via feedlots
Causes more human health problems than any other type
of water pollution
Fecal coliform bacteria indicate fecal contamination of
water
- The water can hold other pathogens, such as giardiais,
typhoid, hepatitis A

Pathogens cause massive human health
problems
Currently, 1.1 billion people are without safe drinking
water
2.4 billion have no sewer or sanitary facilities
- Mostly rural Asians and Africans
An estimated 5 million people die per year
Solutions:
Treat sewage
Disinfect drinking water
Public education to encourage personal hygiene
Government enforcement of regulations
Toxic chemicals
From natural and synthetic sources

- Pesticides, petroleum products, synthetic chemicals
- Arsenic, lead, mercury, acid rain, acid drainage from mines
Effects include: poisoning animals and plants, altering aquatic
ecosystems, and affecting human health
Solutions:
Legislating and enforcing more stringent regulations of
industry
Modify industrial processes
Modify our purchasing decisions

Sediment pollution
Sediment can impair aquatic ecosystems

- Clear-cutting, mining, poor cultivation practices
- Dramatically changes aquatic habitats, and fish may
not survive
- Solutions: better management of farms and forests;
avoid large-scale disturbance of vegetation

Thermal pollution
Warmer water holds less oxygen
- Dissolved oxygen decreases as temperature increases
- Industrial cooling heats water
- Removing streamside cover also raises water
temperature
Water that is too cold causes problems
- Water at the bottom of reservoirs is colder
- When water is released, downstream water
temperatures drop suddenly and may kill aquatic
organisms

Point and nonpoint source water pollution
Point source water pollution = discrete locations of pollution
- Factory or sewer pipes
Nonpoint source water pollution = pollution from multiple
cumulative inputs over a large area
- Farms, cities, streets, neighborhoods
The U.S. Clean Water Act
- Addressed point sources
- Targeted industrial discharge
In the U.S., nonpoint sources have a greater impact on quality
- Limit development on watershed land surrounding reservoirs

Freshwater pollution sources

Indicators of water quality
Scientists measure properties of water to characterize

its quality
- Biological indicators: presence of fecal coliform
bacteria and other disease-causing organisms
- Chemical indicators: pH, nutrient concentration,
taste, odor, hardness, dissolved oxygen
- Physical indicators: turbidity, color, temperature
Groundwater pollution is a serious problem
Groundwater is increasingly contaminated, but is hidden

from view
- Difficult to monitor
- Out of sight, out of mind
- Retains contaminants for decades and longer
- Takes longer for contaminants to breakdown in
groundwater because of the lower dissolved oxygen
levels

Sources of groundwater pollution
Some toxic chemicals occur
naturally
- Aluminum, fluoride, sulfates
Pollution from human causes
- Wastes leach through soils
- Pathogens enter through
improperly designed wells
- Hazardous wastes are pumped
into the ground
- Underground storage septic
tanks may leak
Agriculture and industries pollute
groundwater
Agricultural pollution
- Nitrates from fertilizers
- Pesticides were detected in more than half of the
shallow aquifers tested
Manufacturing industries and military sites have been
heavy polluters

Legislative efforts reduce pollution
Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972)

- Renamed the Clean Water Act in 1977
- Illegal to discharge pollution without a permit
- Standards for industrial wastewater
- Funded sewage treatment plants
Because of legislation, the situation is much better than it
was
Other nations have also reduced pollution

We treat our drinking water
Technology has improved our pollution control

The EPA sets standards for more than 80 drinking water
contaminants
- Local governments and private water suppliers must
meet
Before water reaches the user
- It is chemically treated, filtered, and disinfected

It is better to prevent pollution
It is far better to prevent groundwater contamination than
correct it
Other options are not as good:
- Removing just one herbicide from water costs $400
million
- Pumping, treating, and re-injecting it takes too long
- Restricting pollutants above aquifers would shift
pollution elsewhere
Consumers can purchase environmentally friendly
products
- Become involved in local river watch projects
Treating wastewater
Wastewater = water that has been used by people in
some way
- Sewage, showers, sinks, manufacturing, storm water
runoff
Septic systems = the most popular method of wastewater
disposal in rural areas
- Underground septic tanks separate solids and oils from
wastewater
- The water drains into a drain field, where microbes
decompose the water
- Solid waste needs to be periodically pumped and
landfilled
Municipal sewer systems
In populated areas, sewer systems carry wastewater

- Physical, chemical, and biological water treatment
Primary treatment = the physical removal of
contaminants in settling tanks (clarifiers)
Secondary treatment = water is stirred and aerated
so aerobic bacteria degrade organic pollutants
- Water treated with chlorine is piped into rivers or
the ocean
- Some reclaimed water is used for irrigation,
lawns, or industry
A typical wastewater treatment facility

Artificial wetlands
Natural and artificial wetlands can cleanse wastewater

- After primary treatment at a conventional facility,
water is pumped into the wetland
- Microbes decompose the remaining pollutants
- Cleansed water is released into waterways or
percolated underground
Constructed wetlands serve as havens for wildlife and
areas for human recreation
- More than 500 artificially constructed or restored
wetlands exist in the U.S.

Conclusion
Obtaining future supplies of freshwater will be an

environmental challenge
With expanding population and increasing water usage,
we are approaching conditions of widespread scarcity
Water pollution is already harming freshwater around the
world
New approaches can help this situation

QUESTION: Review
The picture shows a(n) ?
a) Estuary
b) Wetland
c) Oxbow lake
d) River delta

QUESTION: Review
The area of a lake that contains open water that does not
receive sunlight is called the _______zone.
a) Littoral
b) Benthic
c) Limnetic
d) Profundal

QUESTION: Review
A confined aquifer is defined as?
a) An aquifer that traps porous rocks between layers

of less permeable substrate
b) An aquifer that traps porous rocks under one
layer of less permeable substrate
c) An aquifer with porous rocks resting on bedrock
d) An aquifer with no upper layer

QUESTION: Review
Arid countries tend to use their water mostly for?
a) Developing industries
b) Agriculture
c) Households
d) Export to rich countries

QUESTION: Review
Which of the following statements is not a benefit of
dams?
a) Habitat alteration
b) Power generation
c) Crop irrigation
d) Shipping

QUESTION: Review
Pollution is defined as the release of matter or energy
into the environment that causes ______?
a) Undesirable impacts on human health

b) Undesirable impacts on other organisms
c) Undesirable impacts on human well-being
d) All of the above are included in the definition

QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is a nonpoint source of water
pollution?
a) A factory
b) Sewer pipes
c) Agricultural fields
d) All are nonpoint sources

QUESTION: Review
Primary treatment of wastewater includes?
a) Treating water with chemicals

b) Stirring and aerating water
c) Degradation of wastes by bacteria
d) Physical removal of contaminants

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
What is the relationship between water consumption and
the amount of land that is irrigated?
a) Irrigation has grown more

slowly than demand
b) Irrigation and demand
have both increased
c) Growth of demand and
irrigation will slow
d) The U.S. does not follow
this graph

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Which conclusion can you draw from this graph?
a) It is more water efficient to
produce vegetables
b) It is more water efficient to
produce meat
c) Vegetable and meat production
are relatively alike in water
consumption
d) There is little correlation
between water consumption and
our diet
From The Science behind the Stories

QUESTION: Viewpoints
In 2001, angry farmers disobeyed a federal order to
divert irrigation water downstream to save
endangered species of fish. What should happen to
the farmers?
a) Nothing; they need the water for their crops

b) They should be fined for breaking the law
c) They should be paid subsidies so they can
continue farming
d) They should be paid to plant different crops
that do not require so much water

QUESTION: Viewpoints
Should cities in dry areas such as Las Vegas be allowed to
increase their populations, so that they will require more
water?
a) Yes; its not the American way to limit what cities can do
b) Yes, but the people will have to pay the true cost of water
c) Yes, but only if the people are required to use drastic
conservation measures
d) No; enough is enough, and cities in arid environments
simply cannot continue growing

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Ch 15

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Water and the hydrologic cycle

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The 2,330 km Colorado River begins in

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Water from rain, snowmelt, or springs forms streams,

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

If there is a large bend in the

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Floodplain = areas nearest to the rivers course that are

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Wetlands are extremely valuable for wildlife

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Lakes and ponds are bodies of open, standing water

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Oligotrophic lakes and ponds = have low nutrient and

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Groundwater = any precipitation that does not evaporate,

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Confined or artesian = water-bearing, porous rocks

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The worlds largest

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Different regions possess vastly different amounts of

Monsoon seasons bring concentrated storms

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Climate change will cause

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

We have achieved impressive engineering

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Consumptive use = water is removed from an aquifer or

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Dam = any obstruction placed in a river or stream to

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The dam, on the Yangtze

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Cost $25 billion to build

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Flooding is a normal, natural process

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

People have long

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

People may have

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Today, 70% more water is withdrawn for irrigation

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Only 45% of water is absorbed by crops via flood

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Groundwater is easily depleted

Freshwater depletion leads to shortages, which can lead

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Desalinization = the removal of salt from seawater or

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings