Electric Motors

Introduction

Electromechanical device that converts

electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy used to e.g. Rotate

pump impeller, fan, blower Drive
compressors Lift materials

Motors in industry: 70% of electrical

load.
 Principle of operation
When a current-carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, there is an
interaction between the magnetic field
produced by the current and the
permanent field, which leads to a force
being experienced by the conductor
 The magnitude of the force on the conductor
depends on the magnitude of the current which it
carries. The force is a maximum when the current
flows perpendicular to the field (as shown in
diagram A on the left below), and it is zero when it
flows parallel to the field (as in diagram B, on the
right):
Faradays law of electromagnetic
induction
 Motion of a current-carrying loop in a
magnetic field

F Rotation
I

N L R
S
brushes F
Commutato
r (rotates
with coil)
Vertical position of the loop:

Rotation

N S
DC Motors
Construction of DC Motor:
Construction of DC Motor:
 Function of each part of DC Motor:
Yoke:
It is outer cover of dc motor also called as frame.
It provides protection to the rotating and other
part of the machine from moisture, dust etc.
Yoke is an iron body which provides the path for
the flux to complete the magnetic circuit.
It provides the mechanical support for the poles.
Material Used: low reluctance material such
as cast iron, silicon steel, rolled steel, cast
steel etc.
Poles, and pole core:
Poles are electromagnet,
the field winding is
wound over it It produces
the magnetic flux when
the field winding is
excited.
The construction of pole is done using the
lamination of particular shape to reduce the
power loss due to eddy current.
Pole shoe:
Pole shoe is an extended part of a pole. Due to its
typical shape, it enlarges the area of the pole, so
that more flux can pass through the air gap to
armature.
Material Used: low reluctance magnetic material
such as cast steel or cast iron
 Field winding: field coil wound on pole

The coil wound on the pole core are

called field coils.
Field coils are connected in series to form field
winding.
Current is passed through the field winding in a
specific direction, to magnetize the poles and
pole shoes. Thus magnetic flux is produce in the
air gap between the pole shoe and armature.
Field winding is also called as Exciting winding.
Material Used for copper conductor is copper.
Due to the current flowing through the field
winding alternate N and S poles are
produced.
Armature core:
Armature core is a cylindrical drum mounted on
the shaft.
It is provided with large number of slots all
over its periphery and it is parallel to the
shaft axis.
Armature conductors are placed in these
slots.
Armature core provides low reluctance path
to the flux produced by the field winding.
Material used: high permeability, low reluctance
cast steel or cast iron material is used.
Laminated construction of iron core is used to
minimize the eddy current losses.
Armature winding:

Armature conductor is placed in a

armature slots present on the periphery
of armature core.
Armature conductor are interconnected to
form the armature winding.
Armature winding is connected to the external
circuit (load) through the commutator and
brushes.
Material Used: Armature winding is suppose to
carry the entire load current hence it should be
made up of conducting material such as copper.
Commutator:
It is a cylindrical drum mounted
on the shaft along with the
armature core.
It is made up of large number of
wedge shaped segments of hard-
drawn copper.
The segments are insulated
from each other by thin layer
ofica.
Armature winding are tapped at various points
and these tapping are successively connected to
various segments of the commutator.
Function of commutator:
It converts the ac emf generated internally into dc
It helps to produce unidirectional torque.
Brushes:
Current are conducted from the armature to the
external load by the carbon brushes which are
held against the surface of the commutator by
springs.
Function of brushes: To collect the current from
the commutator and apply it to the external
load in generator, and vice versa in motor.
Material Used:
Brushes are made of carbon and they are
rectangular in shape.
Back emf:
When the armature starts rotating in the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding, it cuts the lines of
magnetic flux and induces the emf in the armature
winding.
According to Lenzs law (The law that whenever there is
an induced electromotive force (emf) in a conductor, it is
always in such a direction that the current it would
produce would oppose the change which causes the
induced emf. ), this induced emf acts in the opposite
direction to the armature supply voltage. Hence this emf
is called as back emfs.
b= /60 Volts
+
= speed in rpm
= flux per pole armature A1
= no of conductors supply voltage armature
A2

=no of pole pairs supply voltage

=area of cross section of conductor _

= back emf
Voltage and Power equation of DC Motor:
= +
If we multiply the above equation by , we will get
= + 2
= the
= the ch r
the
2 = wng
Thus,
= 2
=input power-power loss
thus, = Gross mechanical power produce by the
motor = Pm
Torque equation of DC Motor:
Mh th shaft
mechanical = *...........................................(1)
T =Torque in Newton-meter
= angular velocity in radian /second

G mechanical the
= ...............................................(2)
Eb = back emf in volts
Ia = armature current in ampere

Equating equation and , we get = *................(3)

 = 2/ 60 .......................................(4)
2/60 = Speed in rpm
= /60A
Thus, equation(3) become
/60A * = (2 /60 )
= /2
, are constant, hence we can say

Thus torque produce by the DC Motor is
proportional to the main field flux and
armature current
 Types of DC Motor:

Classification of the d.c. motor depends on the way of

connecting the armature and field winding of a d.c.
motor:
1. DC Shunt Motor
2. DC Series Motor
3. DC Compound Motor

Short shunt compound long shunt compound

Cumulative Differential Cumulative Differential

compound compound compound compound
motor motor motor motor
 DC Shunt Motor:
In dc shunt motor the
armature and field winding
are connected in parallel
across the supply voltage
The resistance of the shunt
winding h is always higher
than the armature winding
Since V and h both remains constant the h
remains essentially constant, as field current is
responsible for generation of flux.
thus h
So shunt motor is also called as constant flux
motor.
Torque and Speed equation of DC Shunt Motor:

As we have seen for dc motor

But for dc shunt motor : h
And h is constant , thus is also constant So
torque in dc shunt motor is

For dc motor
Eb=/60
, , , 60 are constants

Thus, ( )
 Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor:

To study the performance of the DC shunt Motor

various types of characteristics are to be studied

1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristics.

2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristics.

3. Speed Vs Torque characteristics.

Torque Vs Armature current characteristics of
DC Shunt motor
This characteristic gives us information that, how
torque of machine will vary with armature current,
which depends upon load on the motor.

Thus,
 Speed Vs Armature current characteristics of
DC Shunt Motor
Back emf of dc motor is b= =
60

Therefore shunt motor is considered as constant speed

motor.
 Speed Vs Torque
characteristics of DC Shunt motor
From the above two
characteristics of dc shunt motor,
the torque developed and speed
at various armature currents of
dc shunt motor may be noted.
If these values are plotted, the
graph representing the variation
of speed with torque developed
is obtained.
This curve resembles the speed
Vs current characteristics as the
torque is directly proportional to
the armature current.
 Applications of DC shunt Motor:

These motors are constant speed motors,

hence used in applications requiring
constant speed.
Like:
1)Lathe machine
2)Drilling machine
3)Grinders
4)Blowers
5)Compressors
 DC Series Motor:
In this type of DC motor the armature and field
windings are connected in series.
the resistance of the series
field winding Rs is much
smaller than the armature
resistance Ra
The flux produced is
proportional to the field
current but in this If = Ia thus

Thus flux can never become constant in dc series
motor as load changes If and Ia also gets changed
Thus dc series motor is not a constant flux motor.
Torque and Speed equation of DC Series Motor:
As we have seen for dc motor

But for dc series motor as = h

So torque in dc series motor is

2
For dc motor

=
60
, , 60 are constants

Thus,
= (+) ....... as =

for dc series motor
 Characteristics of DC Series Motor:

To study the performance of the DC series Motor

various types of characteristics are to be studied

1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristics

2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristics.

3. Speed Vs Torque characteristics

Torque Vs Armature current characteristics
of DC Series motor
Torque developed in any dc motor is

In case of a D.C. series motor, as field current is equal to
armature current, and for small value of

Therefore the torque in the dc series motor for small
value of
2
When is large the remains the constant due to
saturation, thus torque is directly proportional to
armature current for large value of

 Thus Torque Vs Armature current characteristics begin to
raise parabolically at low value of armature current and
when saturation is reached it become a straight line as
shown below.
Speed Vs Armature current characteristics of
DC Series Motor

( )
=

When supply voltage V is kept constant, speed of the
motor will be inversely proportional to flux.
In dc series motor field exciting current is equal to
armature current which is nothing but a load
current.
Therefore at light load when saturation is not
attained, flux will be proportional to the armature
current and hence speed will be inversely
proportional to armature current.
Hence speed and armature current characteristics
is hyperbolic curve upto saturation.
 As the load increases the armature current
increases and field gets saturated, once the field
gets saturated flux will become constant
irrespective of increases in the armature current.
Therefore at heavy load the speed of the dc series
motor remains constant.
This type of dc series motor has high starting
torque.
Speed Vs Torque characteristics of DC Series
motor
The Speed Vs Torque characteristics of dc series
motor will be similar to the Speed Vs Armature
current characteristics it will be rectangular
hyperbola, as shown in the fig.
 Applications of DC series Motor-

These motors are useful in applications where

starting torque required is high and quick
acceleration. Like:
1) Traction
2) Hoists and Lifts
3) Crane
4) Rolling mills
5) Conveyors
 DC Compound Motor:
The DC compound motor is a combination of the
series motor and the shunt motor. It has a series
field winding that is connected in series with the
armature and a shunt field that is in parallel
with the armature. The combination of series and
shunt winding allows the motor to have the
torque characteristics of the series motor and the
regulated speed characteristics of the shunt
motor. Several versions of the compound motor
are:
Short Shunt Compound Motor
Long Shunt Compound Motor
 Short shunt compound motor:
When shunt field winding is
connected in parallel with
armature like dc shunt motor and
this assembly is connected in
series with the series field winding
then this type of motor is called as
short shunt compound motor.
Depending on the polarity of the connection short
shunt motor is classified as:
1. Cumulative compound motor.
2. Differential compound motor.
 Cumulative compound motor (short shunt):
Figure shows a diagram of the cumulative
compound motor. It is so called because the shunt
field is connected so that its coils are aiding the
magnetic fields of the series field and armature.
In this figure that the top of the shunt field is
positive polarity and that it is connected to the
positive terminal of the armature.
 The cumulative compound motor is one of the most
common as it provides high starting torque and good
speed regulation at high speeds. Since the shunt field
is wired with similar polarity in parallel with the
magnetic field aiding the series field and armature
field, it is called cumulative. When the motor is
connected this way, it can start even with a large load
and then operate smoothly when the load varies
slightly.
A shunt motor can provide smooth operation at full
speed, but it cannot start with a large load attached,
and the series motor can start with a heavy load, but
its speed cannot be controlled. The cumulative
compound motor takes the best characteristics of
both the series motor and shunt motor, which makes
it acceptable for most applications.
 Differential Compound Motor (short shunt):

Figure shows the diagram for a

differential compound motor with
the shunt field connected so its
polarity is reversed to thepolarity
of the armature.

Since the shunt field is still

connected in parallel with only
the armature, it is considered a
short shunt.
In the differential compound motor the shunt field
is connected so that its magnetic field opposes the
magnetic fields in the armature and series field.

When the shunt field's polarity is reversed like this,

its field will oppose the other fields and the
characteristics of the shunt motor are not as
pronounced in this motor. This means that the
motor will tend to overspeed when the load is
reduced just like a series motor.
Its speed will also drop more than the cumulative
compound motor when the load increases at full
rpm.
These two characteristics make the differential
motor less desirable than the cumulative motor for
most applications.
 Long shunt compound motor:
When the shunt field is
connected in parallel with
both the series field and the
armature then this type of
motor is called as long shunt
compound motor.
Depending on the polarity of
connection of shunt field winding,
series field winding classified as:
1. Cumulative Compound Motor.
2. Differential Compound Motor.
 Characteristics of DC compound Motor:

To study the performance of the DC compound

Motor various types of characteristics are to be
studied.

1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristics.

2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristics.

3. Speed Vs Torque characteristics

 In dc compound motors both shunt and
series field acting simultaneously.
In cumulative compound motor series field
assist the shunt field.
In such motors when armature current increases
the field flux increases.
So for given armature current the torque
developed will be greater and speed lower when
compared to a dc shunt motor.
In differential compound motor series field
opposes the shunt field, therefore when armature
current decreases the field flux decreases, so for
given armature current the torque developed will
be lower and speed greater when compare to the
dc shunt motor.
Torque Vs Armature current and Speed Vs Armature current
characteristics of dc compound motors

Speed Vs Torque characteristics are compared with that of shunt motor.

 Applications of DC Compound Motor:
Cumulative Compound Motor:

These motors have high starting torque.

They can be operated even at no loads as they
run at a moderately high speed at no load.
Hence cumulative compound motors are used
for the following applications.
1. Elevators
2. Rolling mills
3. Punches
4. Shears
5. planers
 Applications of DC Compound Motor:

Differential Compound Motor:

The speed of these motors increases with
increases in the load which leads to an
unstable operation.
Therefore we can not use this motor for any
practical applications.
 Speed Control of DC Motor:
The speed equation of dc motor is
()

But the resistance of armature winding or series field winding
in dc series motor are small.
Therefore the voltage drop or ( + ) across them
will be negligible as compare to the external supply voltage V
in above equation.
Therefore , since V>>>>

Thus we can say
1. Speed is inversely proportional to flux .
2. Speed is directly proportional to armature voltage.
3. Speed is directly proportional to applied voltage V.
So by varying one of these parameters, it is possible to change
the speed of a dc motor
 Armature voltage control method:
Speed of the motor is
directly proportional to the
back emf Eb and Eb = V- IaRa.
When supply voltage V and
armature resistance Ra are
kept constant, speed is
directly proportional to
armature current Ia.
Thus if we add resistance in
series with armature, Ia
decreases and hence speed
decreases.
Greater the resistance in
series with armature, greater
the decrease in speed.
 Merits & Demerits
1. Speed changes with every change in load, because
speed variations depend not only on controlling
resistance but on load current also. This double
dependence makes it impossible to keep the speed
sensibly constant on rapidly changing loads.
2. A large amount of power is wasted in the controller
resistance. Loss of power is directly proportional to the
reduction in speed. Hence, efficiency is decreased.
3. Maximum power developed is diminished in the same
ratio as speed.
4. It needs expensive arrangement for dissipation of heat
produced in the controller resistance.
5. It gives speeds below the normal, not above it because
armature voltage can be decreased (not increased) by
the controller resistance.
 Field current control method:
It is seen that speed of
the motor is inversely
proportional to flux. Thus
by decreasing flux speed
can be increased and vice
versa.

To control the flux, a rheostat

is added in series with the field
winding, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Adding more resistance will increase the speed, as it
will decrease the flux.
Field current is relatively small and hence I2R loss is
small, hence this method is quiet efficient.
 The Effect of an Open Field Circuit
What would happen if the field circuit were
actually opened while the motor is running?

The flux in the machine will drop, and EA will

drop as well. This would cause a really large
increase in the armature current, and the
resulting induced torque would be quite a bit
higher than the load torque of the motor.
Therefore, the motors speed starts to rise and
just keeps going up.

This condition is called runaway.

 Reversal of Direction of Rotation:
The direction of the magnetic flux in the air gap
depends on the direction of the field current.
And the direction of the force exerted on the
armature winding depends on the direction of
flux and the direction of armature current.
Thus in order to reverse the direction of dc
motor, we have to reverse the direction of
force.
This can be achieved either by changing the
terminals of the armature or the terminals of
the field winding.
 Need of Starter:
We know that,V = + .............for a dc shunt motor
and V = + ( + ).for a dc series motor
Hence the expression for are as follows:
= for dc shunt motor


= ..for dc series motor
(+)
At the time of starting the motor, speed N=0 and hence the
back emf =0. Hence the armature current at the time of
starting is given by,

() = .for dc shunt motor


() = for dc series motor
(+)
 Since the the values of are small, the starting
currents will be tremendously large if the rated voltage is
applied at the time of starting.
The starting current of the motor can be 15 to 20 times higher
than the full load current.
Due to high starting current the supply voltage will fluctuate.
Due to excessive current, the insulation of the armature
winding may burn.
The fuses will blow and circuit breakers will trip.
For dc series motors the torque T 2. So an excessive large
starting torque is produced. This can put a heavy mechanical
stress on the winding and shaft of the motor resulting in the
mechanical damage to the motor.
So to avoid all these effects we have to keep the starting
current of motor below safe limit. This is achieved by using
starter.
 Principle of starter:
Starter is basically a resistance which is connected in
series with the armature winding only at the time of
starting the motor to limit the starting current.
The starter of starter resistance will remain in the circuit
only at the time of starting and will go out of the circuit
or become ineffective when the motor speed upto a
desire speed.
 At the time of starting, the starter is in the start
position as shown in fig. so the full starter
resistance appears in series with the armature.
This will reduce the starting current.
The starter resistance is then gradually cut off.
The motor will speed up, back emf will be
developed and it will regulate the armature
current. The starter is not necessary then.
Thus starter is pushed to the Run position as
shown in fig under the normal operating
condition. The value of starter resistance is zero
in this position and it does not affect the normal
operation.

Types of starter:
1. Three point starter
2. Four point starter
 Working
To start with the handle is in the OFF position when the supply to the DC
motor is switched on. Then handle is slowly moved against the spring
force to make a contact with stud No. 1.
At this point, field winding of the shunt or the compound motor gets
supply through the parallel path provided to starting resistance, through
No Voltage Coil. While entire starting resistance comes in series with the
armature.
The high starting armature current thus gets limited as the current
equation at this stage becomes Ia = E/(Ra+Rst).
As the handle is moved further, it goes on making contact with studs 2,
3, 4 etc., thus gradually cutting off the series resistance from the
armature circuit as the motor gathers speed.
Finally when the starter handle is in 'RUN' position, the entire starting
resistance is eliminated and the motor runs with normal speed.

Now the obvious question is once the handle is taken to the RUN position
how is it supposed to stay there, as long as motor is running ?
 Continue.
The supply to the field winding is derived through no voltage coil. So
when field current flows, the NVC is magnetized.
Now when the handle is in the 'RUN' position, soft iron piece connected
to the handle and gets attracted by the magnetic force produced by NVC,
because of flow of current through it.
The NVC is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in 'RUN'
position against the force of the spring as long as supply is given to the
motor. Thus NVC holds the handle in the 'RUN' position and hence also
called hold on coil.
Now when there is any kind of supply failure, the current flow through
NVC is affected and it immediately looses its magnetic property and is
unable to keep the soft iron piece on the handle, attracted.
At this point under the action of the spring force, the handle comes back
to OFF position, opening the circuit and thus switching off the motor. So
due to the combination of NVC and the spring, the starter handle always
comes back to OFF position whenever there is any supply problems.
Thus it also acts as a protective device safeguarding the motor from any
kind of abnormality.
 4 Point Starter

The 4 point starter like in the case of a 3 point starter also acts as a
protective device that helps in safeguarding the armature of the
shunt or compound excited dc motor against the high starting
current produced in the absence of back emf at starting.

The 4 point starter has a lot of constructional and functional

similarity to a three point starter, but this special device has an
additional point and a coil in its construction, which naturally brings
about some difference in its functionality, though the basic
operational characteristic remains the same.
 Construction

A 4 point starter as the name suggests has 4 main operational points,

namely
1. 'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.)
2. 'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the armature winding.)
3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.)
Like in the case of the 3 point starter, and in addition to it there is,
4. A 4th point N. (Connected to the No Voltage Coil)

The remarkable difference in case of a 4 point starter is that the No

Voltage Coil is connected independently across the supply through the
fourth terminal called 'N' in addition to the 'L', 'F' and 'A'.
As a direct consequence of that, any change in the field supply current
does not bring about any difference in the performance of the NVC. Thus
it must be ensured that no voltage coil always produce a force which is
strong enough to hold the handle in its 'RUN' position, against force of the
spring, under all the operational conditions.
Continue.
Such a
current is
adjusted
through No
Voltage Coil
with the help of
fixed resistance
R connected in
series with the
NVC using
fourth point 'N'
as shown in the
figure above.
 Continue.

Apart from this above mentioned fact, the 4 point and 3 point
starters are similar in all other ways like possessing is a variable
resistance, integrated into number of sections as shown in the figure
above. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are
shown separately as OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RUN, over which the handle
is free to be maneuvered manually to regulate the starting current
with gathering speed.
 Working
Considering that supply is given and the handle is taken stud No.1, then
the circuit is complete and line current that starts flowing through the
starter. In this situation we can see that the current will be divided into 3
parts, flowing through 3 different points.
i) 1 part flows through the starting resistance (R1+ R2+ R3..) and then
to the armature.
ii) A 2nd part flowing through the field winding F.
iii) And a 3rd part flowing through the no voltage coil in series with the
protective resistance R.
Any change in the shunt field circuit does not bring about any change in
the no voltage coil as the two circuits are independent of each other.
This essentially means that the electromagnet pull subjected upon the
soft iron bar of the handle by the no voltage coil at all points of time
should be high enough to keep the handle at its RUN position, or rather
prevent the spring force from restoring the handle at its original OFF
position, irrespective of how the field rheostat is adjusted.
Induction Motors
Introduction
Three-phase induction motors are the most
common and frequently encountered machines
in industry
simple design, rugged, low-price, easy
maintenance
wide range of power ratings: fractional
horsepower to 10 MW
run essentially as constant speed from no-
load to full load
Its speed depends on the frequency of the
power source
not easy to have variable speed control
requires a variable-frequency power-
electronic drive for optimal speed control
 Construction

An induction motor has two main parts

a stationary stator
consisting of a steel frame that supports a
hollow, cylindrical core
core, constructed from stacked
laminations, having a number of evenly
spaced slots, providing the space for the
stator winding
Stator of IM
Rotor
composed of punched laminations, stacked to create a
series of rotor slots, providing space for the rotor
winding

Rotor windings
conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated
wire (wound-rotor) similar to the winding on the
stator
aluminum bus bars shorted together at the ends by
two aluminum rings, forming a squirrel-cage shaped
circuit (squirrel-cage)
Two basic design types depending on the rotor design

squirrel-cage: conducting bars laid into slots and

shorted at both ends by shorting rings.

wound-rotor: complete set of three-phase

windings exactly as the stator.
Usually Y-connected, the ends of the three rotor
wires are connected to 3 slip rings on the rotor
shaft. In this way, the rotor circuit is accessible.
 Construction

Squirrel cage rotor

Wound rotor

Notice
the slip
rings
 Construction

Slip rings

Cutaway in a
typical
wound-rotor
IM. Notice
the brushes
and the slip
rings

Brush
es
 Rotating Magnetic Field
Balanced three phase windings,
i.e. mechanically displaced 120
degrees form each other, fed by
balanced three phase source
A rotating magnetic field with
constant magnitude is
produced, rotating with a speed
120 f e
nsync rpm
P
Where fe is the supply frequency
and
P is the no. of poles and nsync is
called the synchronous speed in
rpm (revolutions per minute)
 Synchronous speed

P 50 Hz 60 Hz
2 3000 3600
4 1500 1800
6 1000 1200
8 750 900
10 600 720
12 500 600
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
 Principle of operation
This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings
and produces an induced voltage in the rotor windings
Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short
circuited, for both squirrel cage and wound-rotor, and
induced current flows in the rotor windings
The rotor current produces another magnetic field
A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of
those two magnetic fields

ind kBR Bs
Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the
magnetic flux densities of the rotor and the stator
respectively
 Induction motor speed
Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?
If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is
the same speed of the rotating magnetic field, then
the rotor will appear stationary to the rotating
magnetic field and the rotating magnetic field will
not cut the rotor. So, no induced current will flow
in the rotor and no rotor magnetic flux will be
produced so no torque is generated and the rotor
speed will fall below the synchronous speed

When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field

will cut the rotor windings and a torque is
produced
 Induction motor speed

So, the IM will always run at a speed lower

than the synchronous speed
The difference between the motor speed and
the synchronous speed is called the Slip

nslip nsync nm
Where nslip= slip speed
nsync= speed of the magnetic field
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the
motor
 The Slip
nsync nm
s
nsync
Where s is the slip
Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying
the above eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio
and doesnt have units
 Induction Motors and Transformers
Both IM and transformer works on the principle of
induced voltage
Transformer: voltage applied to primary windings
produce an induced voltage in the secondary
windings
Induction motor: voltage applied to the stator
windings produce an induced voltage in the rotor
windings
The difference is that, in the case of the induction
motor, the secondary windings can move
Due to the rotation of the rotor (the secondary
winding of the IM), the induced voltage in it does
not have the same frequency of the stator (the
primary) voltage
 Frequency
The frequency of the voltage induced in
the rotor is given by
Pn
fr
120
Where fr = the rotor frequency (Hz)
P = number of stator poles
n = slip speed (rpm)
P (ns nm )
fr
120
P sns
sf e
120
 Frequency
What would be the frequency of the rotors
induced voltage at any speed nm?
fr s fe
When the rotor is blocked (s=1) , the
frequency of the induced voltage is equal
to the supply frequency
On the other hand, if the rotor runs at
synchronous speed (s = 0), the frequency
will be zero
 Torque
While the input to the induction motor is electrical
power, its output is mechanical power and for that
we should know some terms and quantities related
to mechanical power
Any mechanical load applied to the motor shaft
will introduce a Torque on the motor shaft. This
torque is related to the motor output power and
the rotor speed

load
Pout 2 nm
N .m
and m rad / s
m 60
 Horse power

Another unit used to measure mechanical

power is the horse power
It is used to refer to the mechanical output
power of the motor
Since we, as an electrical engineers, deal with
watts as a unit to measure electrical power,
there is a relation between horse power and
watts hp 746 watts
 Speed control 3-phase induction motors

The expression for the actual speed of a

3-phase induction motor is given by:-

This show that the actual speed depend

on to factors
Synchronous speed Ns & Slip s.
If we change any one of them so we can
vary the speed of an induction motor
 Another way to change the speed is to change
the torque produce by the motor which is given
by :-

If the motor torque is less than the load torque

then the motor speed will be decrease & if the
torque is higher then the load torque the motor
speed will increase.
Mainly two methods control the speed of
induction motor by stator parameters and
rotor parameters.
The parameter like frequency, supply voltage,
no of poles, external resistance can be control
the speed.
Classification of speed control
 Stator voltage control
In this type of control the frequency is
constant and stator voltage varied to
vary the speed of induction motor.
Torque is proportional to the square of
stator supply voltage V1 follows :-

But E is proportional to the supply

voltage V
 Torque slip characteristic up the value S
is low so that (s X) value is neglect

R and K is also constant hence ,

Stator supply voltage V is reduced from

to bV, where b < 1.
 Change in the Stator resistance

This control is basically the stator voltage control

because when the rheostat change which is
connected to the stator circuit ,a part of supply
voltage will drop across the rheostat.
 The actual voltage applied to the stator
is reduced the speed change due to
variable stator voltage.

In the stator position a minimum stator

voltage is applied to the speed of the
induction motor is minimum stator
voltage is applied an speed of the
induction motor is minimum and the
reduced towards the run position the
stator voltage is increased and the
speed also increases.
Speed Control Using External Rotor
Resistance
 The set up speed control Using external rotor
resistance is show in figure.
The variable rotor resistance is connected through
the slipring and brushes.
The values of critical slip Sm Corresponding to the
maximum torque increases with the increases In the
value of R and the torque slip characteristics.
 If assume that the load torque Tl is
constant then the operating point of the
introduction motor shifts from point A to
point B.

So the motor speed changes from N to

N where N is less than N.

Thus the speed decreases with increase

in the rotor resistance R.
 V/F Control
Actual speed N is given :-

The actual speed can be changed by the

changing synchronous speed. But
synchronous speed Ns can be change by
the changing the stator frequency F so
theoretically speed can be control by
only F.
 Only changing in F , keeping V is constant has an
adverse effect on air gap flux because air gap flux
given by,

So air gap flux g is proportional to ratio of (V/F).

Hence the ratio (V/F) is kept constant by changing
the stator voltage V and frequency F simultaneously.
This is necessary to keep the air gap flux constant .
Hence this mathod is called constant (V/F) control.
 Block diagram of V/F control

The ac input is constant voltage and constant frequency is

apply to ac to dc converter which is rectifier.
At the out put of ac to dc convector a dc voltage is obtain a
capacitor bank is used to reduce the ripple contents in the dc
voltage.
The dc voltage is applied of an inverter. The inverter is an
electronic circuit which convert the dc voltage in to the 3-
face variable voltage and frequency ac voltage .
 Controlling the number of poles
The synchronous speed is given by,

So it is possible to change the synchronous

speed by changing the number of poles.
The no of poles can be changed by changing
the connection of stator winding with the
help of simple switching .
The no of the poles in the ratio of 2:1 .so
two different speeds are obtained.
 Function Of Starter
The device which is used to start the 3-phase induction motor is called a
starter.
Necessity Of Starter
Function of starter is to limit the starting high current to a safe value.
The magnitude of E2 depends upon the flux linking with the rotor
conductors and its relative speed. The strength of the rotor flux depends
upon the applied voltage. At the instant of applying rated voltage to the
stator winding, rotor is stationery and as such the slip is unity. So if full
rated voltage is given to the stator winding, then the magnitude of the emf
induced in the rotor conductors will be high, because the relative speed
between the rotor conductors and stator revolving flux is very high i.e.
equal to the synchronous speed of the stator flux. Further the rotor
conductors are short circuited and thus have low impedance.
Hence, the current drawn by the stator winding or motor is very large,
approximately 5 to 7 times the full load current.
 Direct- on- line starter (D.O.L. starter)
Manual primary resistance starter
Primary resistance automatic starter
Automatic auto transformer starter
Manual star delta starter
Automatic star delta starter
Manual rotor resistance starter
Automatic rotor resistance starter
 L1, L2, L3 Lines
M Main contacts
MA Auxiliary or maintaining contact
S1 START PUSH button
S2 OFF PUSH button
OLC Overload relay coil
OL Overload relay contact
C Magnetic coil or operating coil

Fig (1) : DOL starter

 A starter which connects a motor directly across the line is called a Direct-
O3-Line starter , i.e. in this method, the motor is connected by means of a
starter across the full supply voltage.
Fig. (1) shows a wiring diagram of a push button type Direct-On-Line
starter, which is commonly used.
It is very simple, inexpensive, easy to install and maintain.
It consists of a START and OFF push buttons, Electromagnetic
contactor and overload relay.
Switching by this starter is directly from line without any provision to
control the starting current i.e. there is no device to reduce the starting
current in this starter.
 Fig (2) Control Circuit
Operation
When the START push button S1 is pressed, the circuit is completed
from L1 through S2, S1, C (operating coil) and normally closed contacts
(O.L.) of the overload relay to L2.
i.e. L1 S2 S1 C - O.L. L2
Thus, the coil C is energized, and it closes contacts M and connects the
motor across the line.
An Auxiliary or Maintaining contact MA is used to keep the holding or
operating coil energized after the fingers removed from the START
push button S1.
When the OFF push button S2 is pressed, the supply through the
contactor coil C is disconnected.Since the coil C is de-energised, the
main contacts M are opened.
The supply to the motor is disconnected and the motor stops.
 In this starter, there is no current limiting device to limit the starting high
current, only protection against under voltage and overload is provided.
Under Voltage Protection
When the supply voltage is below a certain value or in the event of failure
of
power supply, the coil C is de-energized, therefore motor will be
disconnected'
from the main supply.
Overload Protection
The motor is protected against overload by a thermal overload relay which
open circuits. The control circuit when over load occurs.
In case of an overload on the motor, overload relay coils are energised.
The normally closed contacts DOL Is opened and the contactor coil C is
de-energized the motor from the supply.
In this method of starting. The rate of temperature rise is high and motor
may get damaged if the starting period is large, which may be due to
excessive load or excessive voltage drop in the supply lines.
So small size squirrel cage inductor. Motors up to 5 kW may be this
method.
Fig(1) : Manual Primary resistance starter
 In this method of starting of 3- phase induction motor, primary resistances
are connected in all the three phase of the stator winding, as a result the
applied voltage across the stator winding at the instant of starting is
reduced to a fraction K of the rated voltage of the motor.
Therefore the initial high starting current will also reduce by the same
fraction.
The purpose of primary or starting resistors is to drop some voltage and
hence reduce the voltage applied across the motor terminals.
The torque developed by the motor is directly proportional to the square of
applied voltage, so if the voltage applied across the motor terminals is
reduced by fraction K, but the starting torque is reduced by a fraction K2
of that obtainable with direct switching.
The drawbacks of this method of starting is reduced starting torque and
large power consumption and heating of resistors.
Hence this method of starting is used for small motors only.
 L1, L2, L3 Lines
S1,S2 Start contents
SA Auxiliary or maintaining contact
Cs Magnetic coil or operating coil
for start contacts
Cr Magnetic coil for running contacts
TRc Time delay relay coil
TR Time delay contact
R1, R2, R3 Running contacts
R1, r2, r3 primary resistors
OLC Overload relay coil
OL Overload relay contact
PB1 START push button
PB2 STOP push button

Fig (1) : Primary diagram of a primary resistance automatic starter

 Operation
When the START push button PB1 is pressed, the circuit is completed
from L1 through PB2, PB1, coil Cs and normally closed contacts (OL) of
the overload relays to line L2.
i.e. L1 - PB2 PB1 - Cs OL L2
Thus, the coil Cs ( operating coil for start contacts) is energized and it
closes all starting contacts S1, S2, S3 and SA.
The auxiliary or maintaining contact SA is used to keep the operating coil
Cs energized after the finger id removed from this START push button
PB1.
The primary resistors r1, r2, and r3 in series with line will reduce the
starting current drawn from the line.
Also, at the same time, the coil TRc of a time delay relay connected across
a and b is energized and set the time mechanism.
After a definite time delay, contact TR close and circuit is completed
through operating coil CR.
Pressing the STOP push button de-energizes all contactors and thus the
supply to the motor Is disconnected and the motor stops.
 This coil CR becomes energized, close the run contacts .
The primary resistors now bypassed, thus connected the motor across the
line.
Pressing the STOP push button de energizes all contactors and thus
the supply to the motor is disconnected and the motor stops.
Fig (1) : Manual auto transformer starter
 In this method, 3-phase auto transformer with fixed tappings is used to
obtain reduced voltage for starting the 3-phase induction motors.
Normally 50% to 60% tappings can be used to obtain a safe value of
starting current.
Thus, 50% to 60% of the rated voltage is applied at starting and the auto
transformer is cut out of the motor circuit, when the motor has picked up
the speed about 70% to 80% of the normal speed.
Hence, during normal running condition, the voltage across the stator
winding is of rated value. Fig (1) shows the schematic diagram of. Manual
auto transformer starter.
One problem that occurs with a primary resistor starter is that all the
voltage that is dropped through the resistors is turned into heat. The
amount of heat may become very large and cause problem.
Auto transformer starter is able to provide the same type of voltage
reduction without building up large amount of heat. Further in this method
of starting, the voltage is reduced by transformation and not by dropping
voltage in the resistors and hence the current and power drawn from the
supply are also reduced in comparison to primary resistance starter.
This starter also provides the large amount of torque per ampere of line
current. This method are use in both star and delta connected motors.
 L1, L2, L3 Lines
S1,S2 Start contents
SA Auxiliary or maintaining contact
Cs Operating coil for Start contacts
R1, R2, R3 Running contacts
Cr Magnetic coil or operating coil
for start contacts
ST start contacts
Cst Operating coil for start contacts
TR Pneumatic timer
T.O. Time opening Contact
T.C. Time closing contact
OLC Overload relay coil
OL Overload relay contact
PB1 START push button
PB2 STOP push button

Fig (1) : Automatic auto transformer starter

 Control Circuit
Operation
When the START push button PB1 is pressed, the circuit is completed
from L1 through OFF push button PB2, PB1, operating coil Cs and
normally closed contacts (OL) of the overload relays to line L2.
i.e. L1 PB2 PB1 Cs - OL L2
Thus, the coil Cs ( operating coil for start contacts) is energized and it
closes all the starting contacts S1, S2, S3 and SA.
Further, on staring pressing the START push button PB1,at the same
time, one alternative path is completed as follows:
L1 - PB2 PB1 T.O. - CsT OL L2
Hence, start coil CST et energized, which closes start contacts ST.
 The star contacts connected the three coil ends of the auto transformer
together to from the start point and auto transformer connected in series
with the motor.
Thus the voltage is reduced.
After a per determined time, the pneumatic timing relay opens the star
contactors and simultaneously closes time closing switch T.C.
At the same time operating coil CR get energized by following path:
L1 PB2 - Auxi. Contact SA T.C. ST CR OL - L2
All the run contacts (r1, r2 and r3) are than closed placing the motor
directly across the line and motor runs with full supply voltage.
Pressing the OFF push button PB2 or in case of an overload on the motor
de energized all contactors and therefore disconnect the motor from the
supply line.
Fig (1) : Manual Star Delta Starter

 L1, L2, L3 Lines
S Start contents
Cs Operating coil for Start contacts
D Delta contacts
Cd Operating coil for Delta contacts
M Line contacts
CM operating coil for contacts M
TR Pneumatic timer
TO Time opening Contact
TC Time closing contact
OLC Overload relay coil
OL Overload relay contact
PB1 START push button
PB2 STOP push button

Fig (1) : Wiring diagram and control circuit

of automatic star-delta starter

 The operating coil CM get energized by following path:
L1 PB2 PB1 CM OL OL OL L2
At the same time, the operating coil Cs get energized by following path :
L1 PB2 PB1 TO D CS OL OL OL L2
The operating coil CD is energized by following path
'L1 - PB2 MA TC S CD OL OL OL - L2'
Pressing the OFF PUSH button, de-energizes all contactors and
disconnects the motor from the line.
3 Phase
Ac
Supply

Fig (1) : Manual rotor resistance starter

 This method of starting Is only used for slip ring induction motors because
in case of squirrel cage induction motors, rotor has copper bars, which are
short circuited at both ends.
Hence it is not possible to add any external resistance in the rotor circuit.
In case of slip ring induction motors, rotor has 3-phase star connected
winding whose terminals are connected to three respective slip rings.
In rotor resistance starter the three terminals of the rotor winding are
connected to a variable external resistances through slip rings. Full supply
voltage is applied across the stator. Resistances are fully in the circuit at
starting, so that the starting current is reduced.
The External variable resistance connected in each phase of the rotor
circuit not only reduces the current at starting but increases the starting
torque also due to improvement in power factor.
The rotor circuit resistance is gradually cut out, as the motor speeds up
and during normal running condition, the rotor circuit resistance is
completely cut out and the sliprings are short circuited.
Fig (1) : Manual rotor resistance starter
 Fig. (2) Control circuit

L1, L2, L3 Lines TR Time delay relay contact

S Starting contacts
Cs Operating coil or Magnetic
coil for starting contacts
R Running contacts
CR Operating coil for running
contacts
CTR Time delay relay coil
SA Auxiliary starting contact
OLC Overload relay coil
OL Overload relay contact
PB1 START push button
PB2 OFF push button
 Operation
Fig (1) shows the wiring diagram of an automatic rotor resistance starter
which is commonly used for starting slip ring induction motors and Fig (2)
shows its control circuit. This starter consists of start and run contactors,
time delay relay, overload relays, START and OFF push buttons.
When the START push button PB, is pressed, the circuit is completed
from line L1 through OFF push button PB2, PB1 operating coil Cs and
normally closed contacts of overload relays of L2.
Therefore, the operating coil Cs is energized, closing the starting contacts
S and auxiliary contact SA and the motor starts with external starting
resistances in rotor circuit which will limit the starting current and
improve the starting torque.
At the same time, the coil CTR of a time delay relay is also energized and
set the timing mechanism.
 After a predetermined time, contact TR will close and the operating coil
for running contacts CR will energized through following path :
L1 pb2 SA TR CR OL OL OL L2
Thus, coil CR is energized and causes running contacts R to close and
short circuit the starting resistances. Thus external starting resistances get
short circuited during running condition and motor runs with full rated
speed.
 Insulation Class
The insulation class
letter designates the
amount of allowable
temperature rise
based on the
insulation system
and the motor
service factor.
Class Material Temperature
(max value )

Y Cotton fabric and silk but not impregnated in dielectric 90C

A Same as above but it is impregnated in some dielectric 105C

E Synthetic organic films 120C

B Glass fibres, Mica, Asbestos fibres bound together 130C

F Above material but with impregnations 155C

H Above material combined with silicon binding and 180C

impregnation

C Above material with ceramic or quartz wth or without More than

binding agent 180C
 S.F. - Service Factor
The number by which the
horsepower rating is multiplied to
determine the maximum safe
load that a motor may be
expected to carry continuously
Example - a 10HP motor with a
service factor of 1.15 will
deliver 11.5 horsepower
continuously without exceeding
the allowable temperature rise
of its insulation class
 Open Drip-proof (ODP)
Totally enclosed non-ventilated (TENV)
Totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC)
Totally enclosed blower cooled (TEBC)
 ODP
Open drip-proof
Ventilating openings
permit passage of
external cooling air
over and around the
windings of the
motor. Small degree
of protection against
liquid or solid
particles entering the
enclosure.
 TENV
Totally enclosed
non-ventilated
Totally enclosed
enclosure with no
means of external
cooling.
 TEFC
Totally enclosed
fan-cooled
Totally enclosed
enclosure with
external cooling
means, such as a
shaft connected fan
 TEBC
Totally enclosed
blower-cooled

Totally enclosed
enclosure with
external cooling
means such as a
separately
controlled
motor/blower
 Duties of Motors
The motor works at a constant load
Continuous
S1 for enough time to reach
duty
temperature equilibrium.
The motor works at a constant
load, but not long enough to reach
Short-time temperature equilibrium. The rest
S2
duty periods are long enough for the
motor to reach ambient
temperature.
Sequential, identical run and rest
cycles with constant load.
Intermittent
S3 Temperature equilibrium is never
periodic duty
reached. Starting current has little
effect on temperature rise.
 Sequential, identical start, run and
Intermittent rest cycles with constant load.
S4 periodic duty Temperature equilibrium is not
with starting reached, but starting current
affects temperature rise.
Intermittent Sequential, identical cycles of
periodic duty starting, running at constant load
S5
with electric and running with no load. No rest
braking periods.
Continuous
Sequential, identical cycles of
operation
running with constant load and
S6 with
running with no load. No rest
intermittent
periods.
load
 Continuous Sequential identical cycles of
operation starting, running at constant load
S7
with electric and electric braking. No rest
braking periods.
Continuous
operation Sequential, identical duty cycles
with periodic run at constant load and given
S8
changes in speed, then run at other constant
load and loads and speeds. No rest periods.
speed
Operating Electric Motors
 Once a motor has been wired and
installed properly, operation is limited
to safety precautions and turning on a
switch.
 Safety Precautions
Visually inspect motor, pulleys, belts
and machine to be driven for anything
harmful
Listen for strange noises, humming or
tapping
Smell to check for burning
Feel motor housing to be sure it has
not overheated
Visually check to make sure motor is
not vibrating excessively
Motor Protection and
Maintenance
 Overload Protection
Overload caused by:
Motor size too small for job
Improper wiring and low voltage
Improper installation
Belts too tight
Improper lubrication
Worn pulleys
Clogging due to overloads
Entry of foreign materials into motor
Protection:
Proper fusing of motor circuit
Built-in protection in motor
Manual reset switch control
Special motor starter (current-limiting starter)
 Proper Installation

Minimum amount of vibration

Proper alignment
Misalignment:
Causes belt and bearing wear
Will be a factor in overloading a
motor
 Decrease Friction
Prevents excessive bearing wear and
overloading
Manufacturers recommendations for
lubrication intervals should be
followed
Use high-quality lubricant
Motors with sleeve bearings must be
mounted so shaft is horizontal & level
Alignment of motor, drive,and
equipment should be true
 Protect From Excessive
Oiling
Excess oil causes accumulation of
extra dust or deterioration of
insulation within motor
 Protect From Dust

Accumulation of dust in and on a

motor acts as insulation and may
cause excessive heating of the motor
 Protect From Moisture

Moisture is a conductor of electricity.

A wet motor should be dried
thoroughly before it is used.
 Preventive Maintenance
Check condition of bearings
Check working path of motor, belts,
and driven machine
Check motor mount bolts and driven
machine bolts
Check belt connection between motor
and driven machine
Replace worn belts or pulleys
Safety Precautions for Removing &
Disassembling a Motor
ALWAYS disconnect motors electrical power
source before making any adjustments
Discharge capacitor to prevent electrical shock
Beware of moving parts.
Necessary electrical repairs should be made by
a qualified electrician.
Remove and replace any safety guards.
Trouble-Shooting
Electric Motors
 Trouble-shooting: the process of checking
for a specific problem
When trouble-shooting an electric motor:
Be sure motor is receiving correct voltage and
frequency
Check terminals to be sure correct voltage is
getting to motor terminals
Check for proper condition of all fuses and/or
protective devices, especially reset button
Check and secure all connections made on motor
terminal plate
Measure amperage draw of motor while operating
and compare the reading with the percent of
rated load figure on nameplate
 Both starting and running amperage
draw can be checked with a clip-on or
clamp-type ammeter.
Each conductor must be tested
separately.
Wear appropriate Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) when trouble-
shooting motor problems.
Thank You