ALTERNATES

P. Wilkinson 0272287392
 Briefing Points
Take-off

Landing

Alternates
 It looks ok from here

It is vital that the PIC , when planning any flight, ensures the entire
flight can be carried out legally and safely.

We need to ascertain the conditions, not only of our aerodrome of

departure, but those of our destination as well as all the required
aerodromes we might need to employ.

Broadly speaking we must research

All available meteorological conditions
The availability and serviceability of the facilities at the respective
aerodromes.
 Departure Aerodrome
We must establish what facilities our departure aerodrome
has

Runway Lighting
End/Edge/Centerline
Runway Markings

This information can be found in the AIP or the Aerodrome

Layout Plate
These factors will determine the RVR/Visibility requirements
 Take Off Minima
Facilities RVR/Visibility
Nil (Day only) 500m
REL and/or CL marking 250m/300m (note 1 and 2)
REL and CL Lighting 200m/250m (note 1)
REL , CL Lighting and multiple RVR 150m / 200m (note 1 and 4)
info

1. Higher values apply to CAT D aircraft

2. For night ops, at least REL and Runway End Lights are req'd.
3. Reported RVR/Vis representing initial part of take-off can be replaced by pilot assessment.
4. Reqd RVR value must be achieved for all relevant RVR reporting points exc. Note 3.
Whats this RVR?
RVR
Runway Visual Range
The horizontal distance that one can see down the runway when
positioned at the approach end of the runway.
Measured by a Transmissometer
When looking on the Published Aerodrome Layout plate
for the aerodrome we can see the distance between the
lights.
If the RVR cannot be obtained by ATC or local met reports, it
can also be determined by the PIC by lining up on the runway,
counting the number of lights/runway markings and
multiplying that figure by the distance between them, the
distance published on the Aerodrome Layout plate.
 Apply the Law
CATS 135.07.7
The PIC must ensure that the RVR/vis requirements are equal to or
better than the aerodrome requirements before he may commence a
take-off.
If neither met nor RVR is provided, but the PIC can determine that
the RVR/vis is equal to or better than the requirements 1 hour before
and 1 hour after time of departure, he may commence the take-off.
This can be done by lining up on the centerline of the runway and
counting the REL or CL and multiplying that by the distance between
the lights. This distance can be found in the AIP, (Jeppeson or Aerad.)
Separation of the Classes?
As per CARs Part 91.09.4

Class A
Multi Engine, turbo-prop with MCM >5700kg
Multi Engine turbo-jet powered aircraft
Class B
Propeller driven aircraft with MCM of 5700kg or less
Class C
Aircraft powered by 2 or more reciprocating engines,
MCM >5700kg
Class D
Single Engine Aircraft
Separation of the Classes? Cont
All aircraft fall under particular classes, depending on
their performance with one engine inoperative.

For multi-engine aircraft, whose performance allows:

A power-unit failure @ any point in the take off run
They can either stop
Or continue the take-off and climb to 1500ft while
remaining clear of all obstacles by the required margin
(for eg. 35ft for Class A in SA)

the take-off RVR/Vis may not be lower than the

following
High Performance twins

Facilities RVR / Visibility (meters)*

CAT A, B, C CAT D Aircraft
Aircraft
RL,CL & multiple RVR info ** 150 200
RL & CL 200 250
RL &/or RCLM*** 250 300
NIL (day only) 500 500

* The reported RVR/VIS for initial take-off run may be replaced by pilot assessment
** The reqd RVR value must be achieved for all reporting points except initial T/O run.
*** For night ops at least RL and stop end lights reqd
Not so hot on one?...
If an aircraft is unable to comply with the one engine
inoperative performance required, in the event of a
power-unit failure, then there is a need to re-land and
therefore a need to see and avoid obstacles.

The following table prescribes the required RVR/Vis

limitations vs. the height from which, should a power-
unit fail, the aircraft can climb to avoid obstacles.
 Climb Profile with BOTH
engines operative

Climb Profile with ONE

engines operative
35ft
Low Performance aircraft

Assumed Engine Failure Height RVR/VIS (m)

Above T/O Runway (ft)
50 200
51 100 300
101 150 400
151 200 500
201 300 1000
>300 1500

* Single Pilot - RVR minimum 1500 m

Now for Plan B through Z?
The Take-off wx minima only takes into account the need to see
enough runway ahead that in the event of a rejected take-off, the aircraft
can be kept straight.

It does not take into account the period from getting airborne and
experiencing an abnormality or engine failure.

We should now ask

If we experience an abnormality, can we return to the
same aerodrome for landing?
Does the aerodrome have the facilities to accommodate
a landing in the weather conditions at the time of our
departure?

If our Departure aerodrome cannot satisfy this criteria, we must plan for a . . .
 Take-off Alternate
CAR 1.00.1 : Take off Alternate means an aerodrome to which a
flight may proceed should the weather conditions at the
aerodrome of departure preclude a return for landing.

The weather minima required is normal landing minima

one hour before to one hour after your ETA.
If only non-precision approaches or circling approaches are
available, then the ceiling must be taken into account.
Any limitation related to one-engine inoperative ops must
also be taken into account.
Twin Engine Aircraft Single Engine Aircraft
1 hour @ Single Engine cruise TAS 20 mins @ Cruise TAS
Wx @/above Stay on ground,
take-off minima NO delay or cancel

YES

Wx at/above landing YES Proceed

minima for approach
@ ETD

NO If an appropriate
Alternate cannot be
found, delay or
Wx @ Take-OFF Alternate NO cancel.
Above landing minima for
the planned approach
Time
ETA 1 Hour
Distance
SE - 20 min T-O Alternate
Twin Engine 1 hour @ SE YES selected, advise
Cruise TAS
ATC
FAQs?
May I convert Visibility to RVR, or vice versa, to
establish take-off minima?
IF touch down RVR is not available, may I still depart?
How do I calculate the assumed Engine Failure
Height?
If your twin engine aircraft has a single engine cruise
speed of 100 knots, your take-off alternate is 100 miles
away, and a forecast 50kt headwind(flying time 90
min), may you depart?
Where to?...
Once established that we can legally and safely take-
off from our aerodrome of departure we must:

Check status of ALL facilities @ our Destination

Aerodrome

Establish the Landing Minima

Compare these figures to the actual/forecast

weather conditions

Determine if our minimum criteria for landing

will be met.
Plan A
Is the grass greener?

We must ensure the appropriate weather reports

and/or forecasts show the weather will be at or above
the applicable minima's 1 hour prior to and 1 hour after
your ETA

RVR and Ceiling must be appropriate for the approach

we plan on using.
 Non-Precision Approach
The operator must ensure that the system minima for non-
precision approach procedures, based on the use of
ILS(without glide slope), VOR NDB, SRA and VDF, are not lower than the
MDH (Minimum Decent Height) values outlined in the table below :

Facility Lowest MDH

LOC(no GS) 250 ft
VOR 300 ft
VOR/DME 250 ft
NDB 300 ft
 MDH/A (Minimum Decent Height/Altitude)
Cannot be lower than the OCH/OCL (obstacle clearance
height) for the Category of aircraft; or
The system minimum

The PIC can only continue an approach past the

MDH/A or Visual Decent Point (VDP) if one of the
following visual references for the intended runway is
distinctly visible and identifiable:
Elements of approach lighting
Threshold, its markings/lights or identification lights
The visual glide slope indicator (VASI or PAPI)
REL
Touchdown zone, markings and/or lights.
Decent Profile

Mapt VDP

Sea level

MDH/A
Runway
Edge
Lighting

Centerline
Lighting

PAPI

Approach
Lighting
 For Landing minima we need to determine
which Category our aircraft falls under
Aircraft Vat Range of Range of MAX Max Speed for Missed
Category (KIAS) speeds for speeds speed for Approach segment
IA for FA Circling
Segment Segment Approach Intermediate Final
(KIAS) (KIAS)

A < 91 90-150 70 100 100 100 110

(110*)
B 91 120 120 180 85 130 135 130 150
(140*)
C 121 140 160 240 115 160 180 160 240

D 141 165 185 - 250 130 - 185 205 185 265

Vat = 1.3 x Vso (stall speed in landing configuration @ MCLW)

* = Max speed for reversal and racetrack procedures
These speeds are the maximum allowed speeds, designed to allow the aircraft to
remain within the safe area.
RVR for Non-Precision
Refer to the tables below for the lowest minima to be used
for non-precision approaches. This depends on the
facilities available.
 RVR for non-precision approach minima - FULL FACILITIES

MDH RVR / Airplane

Category
A B C D
250ft 299ft 800 m 800 m 800 m 1200 m
300ft 449ft 900 m 1000 m 1000 m 1400 m
450ft 649ft 1000 m 1200 m 1200 m 1600 m
650ft and above 1200 m 1400 m 1400 m 1800 m

1. Full facilities comprises runway markings,720m or more HI/MI

approach lights, REL, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights
must be on.
2. Tables only applicable to conventional approaches with nominal
decent slope no greater than 4. Greater slopes require visual glide
slope guidance (ie.PAPI) also visible @ MDH
3. Figures above are either reported RVR, or Met Vis converted to RVR
4. The MDH mention refers to initial MDH calculation.
 RVR for non-precision approach minima - INTERMEDIATE FACILITIES

MDH RVR / Airplane

Category
A B C D
250ft 299ft 1 000 m 1 100 m 1 200 m 1 400 m
300ft 449ft 1 200 m 1 300 m 1 400 m 1 600 m
450ft 649ft 1 400 m 1 500 m 1 600 m 1 800 m
650ft and above 1 500 m 1 500 m 1 800 m 2 000 m

1. Intermediate Facilities comprises runway markings, 420m - 719m

HI/MI approach lights, REL, threshold lights and runway end lights.
Lights must be on.
2. Tables only applicable to conventional approaches with nominal
decent slope no greater than 4. Greater slopes require visual glide
slope guidance (ie.PAPI) also visible @ MDH
3. Figures above are either reported RVR, or Met Vis converted to RVR
4. The MDH mention refers to initial MDH calculation.
 RVR for non-precision approach minima - BASIC FACILITIES

MDH RVR / Airplane

Category
A B C D
250ft 299ft 1 200 m 1 300 m 1 400 m 1 600 m
300ft 449ft 1 300 m 1 400 m 1 600 m 1 800 m
450ft 649ft 1 500 m 1 500 m 1 800 m 2 000 m
650ft and above 1 500 m 1 500 m 2 000 m 2 000 m

1. Basic Facilities comprises runway markings, < 420m HI/MI approach

lights, any length of LI approach lights, REL, threshold lights and
runway end lights. Lights must be on.
2. Tables only applicable to conventional approaches with nominal
decent slope no greater than 4. Greater slopes require visual glide
slope guidance (ie.PAPI) also visible @ MDH
3. Figures above are either reported RVR, or Met Vis converted to RVR
4. The MDH mention refers to initial MDH calculation.
 RVR for non-precision approach minima - NIL FACILITIES

MDH RVR / Airplane

Category
A B C D
250ft 299ft 1 500 m 1 500 m 1 600 m 1 800 m
300ft 449ft 1 500 m 1 500 m 1 800 m 2 000 m
450ft 649ft 1 500 m 1 500 m 2 000 m 2 000 m
650ft and above 1 500 m 1 500 m 2 000 m 2 000 m

1. Nil approach light facilities comprise runway markings, REL threshold

lights, runway end lights or no lights at all.
2. Tables only applicable to conventional approaches with nominal
decent slope no greater than 4. Greater slopes require visual glide
slope guidance (ie.PAPI) also visible @ MDH
3. Figures above are either reported RVR, or Met Vis converted to RVR
4. The MDH mention refers to initial MDH calculation.
RVR cont
Met Vis cannot be converted to RVR for take-off planning,
however, by using the conversion factors in the table below,
the visibility can be converted into RVR for the purpose of
planning an approach to land, by multiplying the vis with
the corresponding figure.
Lighting elements in RVR = Reported Visibility
Operation
Day Night

HIALS and HIRL 1.5 2

Any other type of lighting 1 1.5
other than the above
No Lighting 1 N/A
Planning for Precision?...
If our Destination Aerodrome has the appropriate facilities, we can also
use CAT I Approach Minimums

CAT I ops facilitates a precision approach, ILS with glide slope

indicator, which provides for an approach to a decision height (DH) not
lower than 200ft and a visibility not less than 800m or RVR of 550m.

Decision height
The operator must ensure the CAT 1 DH is not lower than:
The min. height specified in the AFM
The min. height to which the approach aid may be used without the
required visual reference (same as non-precision)
The OCH/OCL for the category of airplane
200ft
 RVR for Category 1 approach vs. Facilities and DH

DH Facilities/RVR
FULL INTERMEDIATE BASIC NIL
200 ft 550 m 700 m 800 m 1 000 m
201 ft 250 ft 600 m 700 m 800 m 1 000 m
251 ft 300 ft 650 m 800 m 900 m 1 200 m
301 ft and 800 m 900 m 1000 m 1 200 m
above

**Please note the description of the criteria for facilities is the same as for non-precision.
One thing you can count on, you can never
count on weather!
Always have a back-up
Does the wx @ the Destination aerodrome permit a
VMC approach 1 hour prior and 1 hour after ETA?
NO? a destination alternate is required

Does the Destination aerodrome have 2 non-

intersecting runways?
NO? a destination alternate is required.

Does the forecast wx @ Destination aerodrome meet

landing minima 1 hour prior to and 1 hour after ETA?
NO? then TWO destination alternates are required.
Destination Alternate
Aircraft system
failure

Weather Approach Ban

Should we not be
able to land at our
Destination
Unserviceable
aerodrome, due to:
facilities

Blocked runways
Approach Ban
An Approach Ban stipulates that the PIC may
commence the instrument approach regardless of the
reported RVR/Visibility, but may not continue past the
outer marker(or equivalent position) if the
RVR/Visibility is less than the applicable minima.

Approach bans are implemented so that departing

traffic is not delayed while an aircraft attempts the
approach with little chance of success due to weather.
Unserviceable Facilities
Weather phenomenon, Eskom, these
may cause our Nav-aids to become
unserviceable.
Blocked Runways
Unforeseen circumstances may
deem that both runways become
unserviceable.
Aircraft System Failure Damage to aircraft may
affect avionics or the
ability to proceed with the
approach. Damage may
also affect performance or
may require emergency
services which your
aerodrome of choice may
not have.
Destination Alternate cont

We therefore add a Destination Alternate Aerodrome

into our plans

A safety factor is built into the Destination Alternate

minima's to ensure that if the weather were to
deteriorate, our chances of landing at the Alternate
aerodrome would still be good.
Plan B,C,D
 Planning Minima En-route and Destination Alternates

Type of Approach Planning Minima

CAT II and III CAT I minima with RVR

CAT I Non-precision minima and ceiling must

be above MDH

Non-Precision Non-precision minima plus 200 ft

added to MDH and 1 000 m added to
RVR/Visibility. Ceiling must be above
the MDH + 200 ft

Circling Circling minima

 Wx VMC cloud Wx @ or above
base equal to or NO landing minima
better than MSA? for intended
approach @ ETA
Alternate 1 Hour?
YES required

NO
Two NON- NO
Intersecting runways?
Two Alternates
required.
YES

Alternate above
Alternate not required, alternate planning
flight legal to depart. NO minima for ETA 1
Hour?

Time Cancel / Delay

ETA 1 Hour YES
Wx CAT I
Non-precision minima
Wx Non- precision
MDA + 200 ft Alternate not required,
RVR/Vis + 1000 m flight legal to depart.
FAQS
If you are unable to obtain weather at your destination,
or the weather at your destination is below minima,
may you still depart?
When is a destination alternate not required?
If you have 2 Destination Alternates, do you require
sufficient fuel to fly to the first alternate and then on
to the second?
So can we go?...
Once all of the plans have been made and, most
importantly, all of the above contingencies have been
planned for, the flight may commence.
 Bibliography

CARs Part 91 , 121 , 135

ENR 1.08

AWOPS All Weather Operations Craig Pierce

January 2003

Understanding the Jeppesen Jacques Vosloo

First Edition 2004 , Second Edition 2009