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-Approach
1
What is model?
Models are set of variables and their
interrelationships designed to represent
some real system in part or whole.
A body of information about a system
gathered for the purpose of studying the
system.
Research plays a major role in model
building and decision making process.
Example of a model
Y = dependent variable,
A,B,C,D,&E =Independent variables
Form Mathematical
model of process
Verify
Experimentally
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Experimental Approach
Vary all the INPUTS, of the process over a
widest possible range
Optimize established
relations.
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STEPS IN EXPERIMENTATL APPROACH
IDENTIFICATION OF PROCESS VARIABLES
DATA PURIFICATION
FORMULATION OF MODEL 7
Dimensional Analysis
Used primarily as experimental tool to combine
many experimental variables into one in the
fluid mechanics and heat transfer.
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Dimensions /Quantities
1. Fundamental Dimensions(Primary Quantities)
Mass (M)
Length (L)
Time (T)
Temperature ()
[L]x[L]=[L2]
1 Area Length x Breadth m2
Length x Breadth x [L]x[L]x[L]=[L3]
2 Volume m3
Height
[M]/[L3]=ML-3T0]
3 Density Mass/Volume kg m-3
13 Impulse [MLT-2]x[T]=[ Ns
Force x time
MLT-1]
14 Torque [MLT- Nm
Force x Distance 2]x[L]=ML2T-2
Num
16 Strain Ext. in length [L]/[L]=[M0L0T0
ber
/Original length ]
[ML-1T-2]
17 Elasticity Nm-2
Stress/Strain M0L0T0]
Surface = [ML-1T-2]
18 [MLT- Nm-1
tension Force/Length 2]/[L]=[ML0T-2]
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Dimensional Equation
v=u+at
Where,
u = initial velocity of the body
a = acceleration
t = the time taken to attain the final velocity v
Writing the formula in the dimensional equation form,
[M0 L T-1] =[M0 L T-1 ] +[M0 L T-2] [M0 L0 T]
According to Principle of homogeneity of dimensions , a physical
relation is dimensionally correct if the dimensions of the fundamental
quantities are same in each and every term on either side of the equation.
This can be seen that all the terms of this equation are having the
dimensions [M0 L T-1].
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Uses of dimensional equations
To check the correctness of a dim.
Equation.
To recapitulate a forgotten formula.
D=pl2v2f[Re,Fr] 18
( MLT 2 ) ( L) a ( LT 1 )b ( ML3 )c ( ML1T 1 ) d ( LT 2 )e
MLT 2 M c d La b3cd eT bd 2e
Equating the powers on both sides and solving in terms of d & e
M : c d 1 c 1 d - (2)
L : a b 3c d e 1 - (3)
T : b d 2e 2 b 2 d 2e - (4)
From..equation..(3)
a (2 d 2e) 3(1 d )( d )( d ) e 1
a 2 d 2e 3 3d (d ) e 1
a 1 d e 1
a 2ed - (5)
Substituting.. value of a,.b,. & .c.in. terms of d & e in EQ .(1)
D k (l ) a (v)b ( )c ( g )e k (l) 2ed (v) 2d 2e ( )l d d g e
e
d
d
2 e
2 2 lg 2 2 vl
v
k (l v ) k (l v )
lv 2
v lg
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Buckingham pi () Theorem Method
If there are m primary dimensions involved in the n
variables controlling a physical phenomenon, then the
phenomenon can be described by ( n-m ) independent
dimensionless groups.
F f (l , v, , , k )orf ( F , l , v, , , k ) 0 -(1)
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For M c1+1=0 c1= -1
2 2 1 F
1 l v F - (2)
l v
2 2
2 l v
a2 b2 c2
l v
2 1 1 1
- (3)
lv
3 l v k a3 b3 c3
( L) a3 2 1 b3
( LT ) ( ML ) ( ML T 3 c3 1 2
)
M LT M c3 1 b 3 2
0 0 0 a 3 2 b3 2 3 c 2 1
L T
For M c3+1=0 c3= -1
For L a3+b3-3c3-1=0 a3= 0
For T -b3-2=0 b3=-2
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K
3 - (4)
v2
Thus the functional relationship will be
F k
f [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] 0 f 2 2 , , 2 0
l v vl v
k
F l v
2 2
, 2
v l v
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Test Planning
1 Determination of the test envelope
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1. Determination of Test Envelope
Ideally from - to +
Wider range Higher cost, Unmanageable data
More chances of error, Limitation of Test App.
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2. Determination of Test points
* More spacing of test points inaccuracy
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ii) For equal spacing of P
We get more points for larger values of P i.e. larger values of
velocity while precision is not good for lower values of velocity.
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(iii) For uniform & constant precision
We should have points spaced along equal distances or arc length of
experimental curve.
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3. Test sequence
Basically all test are irreversible for which sequential plan
is adopted. Test are irreversible due to effects of hysterisis
in iron-core, Metallurgical changes in specimen. But
wherever possible in engineering experimentation
randomized plans are used partially or completely.
Random plans are preferred because the observation of
sequential plans shows certain trends due to following
reasons.
i.Natural effects may show a general trend during a test
series.
e.g. effect of humidity & temp on barometric pressure.
ii.Human activities may show a trend during test series
due to increasing skill or increasing boredom.
iii. Mechanical defects may produce a trend with regular 32
variation.
Sequential plans are preferred when
a. Length, cost or difficulties in performing the
experimentation do not permit use of randomized plan.
A 1 2 3 4
B 1 2 3 4
C 1 2 3 4
D 1 2 3 4
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Enthusiasm, interest, or dismay generated by a new tool on
first day may gradually fall. Leaving may occur and
production may go-up.
Thus extraneous variable shift day is established
Randomize the shift day
One solution of randomizing the shift day but not correct
is given below
Man Shift Day
M T W TH
A 4 2 1 3
B 2 3 1 4
C 3 2 1 4
D 1 3 4 2
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Decrease in interest at the end of test might suggest a
peaking in the middle speed range. Which is not actually a
speed dependent effect
Correct solution for randomizing the machinist shift day
is given below.
Man Shift Day
M T W TH
A 1 2 3 4
B 3 4 1 2
C 2 1 4 3
D 4 3 2 1
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Conditions for proper randomization
1. Each speed must appear every day 2. No man will
execute one speed . Correct solution for randomizing the
machinist shift day
Man Shift Day
M T W TH
A 1W 2X 3Z 4Y
B 3X 4W 1Y 2Z
C 2Y 1Z 4X 3W
D 4Z 3Y 2W 1X
Productivity
Human energy
Electrical energy
a. e. b. d
h. g. f. c
1
2 Pi-terms relating to geometric variables
H T . L D . W T. l w
a
: a
H .L .W L W
H B . H C . R v. H .L .W.
H A. W b . R h h f . l f . wf
3 Pi-term relating to environmental variable
6 =
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4Pi terms relating to dependent variables
Applying the Buckinghams pi theorem we get,
EE
7 = vi. (Dbt)j. (Heat)k. Wim . EE
V . Wi
HE P . Heat
Heat V . Wi
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2 Test planning
This comprises of deciding test envelope, test points,
test sequence and experimental plan for the deduced set
of dimensional equations.
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2 Determination of test points
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Experimental plan