Nuclear Energy

By
Engineer Jamal uddin
 Radioactive decay

• It also known as nuclear decay is the process by

which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy (in
terms of mass in its rest frame) by emitting radiation,.
• such as an alpha particle, beta particle
• A material containing such unstable nuclei is
considered radioactive.
• Certain highly excited short-lived nuclear states can
decay through neutron emission, or more
rarely, proton emission.
• Radioactive decay is a stochastic (i.e. random)
process at the level of single atoms, in that, according
to quantum theory.
• it is impossible to predict when a particular atom
will decay, regardless of how long the atom has
existed.
• collection of atoms, the collection's expected decay
rate is characterized in terms of their measured decay
constants or half-lives.
• This is the basis of radiometric dating.
• The half-lives of radioactive atoms have no known
upper limit, spanning a time range of over 55 orders
of magnitude, from nearly instantaneous to far longer
than the age of the universe.
• The law states that small amount of disintegration of the
isotope in a small period is directly proportional to the
total number of radioactive nuclei and proportional
constant.
• What is radiation?
• A radioactive atom is one that spontaneously emits
energetic particles or waves (known as radiation).
• This radiation is emitted when an unstable (i.e.
radioactive) nucleus transforms to some other nucleus
or energy level
 Types of Nuclear Radiation

• There are several types of particles or waves that may

shoot out of a radioactive nucleus.
• Alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and
neutrons are the most common forms of ionizing (i.e.
dangerous) radiation.
• Alpha Particles
• Named alpha because they were the first to be
discovered, these particles are made up of 2 protons and
2 neutrons: the helium nucleus.
• Often, large atoms decay by emitting an energetic alpha
particle.
• These particles are relatively large and positively
charged, and therefore do not penetrate through matter
very well.
• A thin piece of paper can stop almost any alpha particle.
• However, the particles cause extreme damage of
materials that they stop in by displacing atoms as they
slow.
• Paper under sustained alpha-irradiation would degrade.
• Beta Particles
• Beta particles are energetic electrons that are emitted from
the nucleus.
• They are born when a neutron decays to a proton.
• Since neutrons are neutral particles and protons are
positive, conservation of charge requires a negatively
charged electron to be emitted.
• Some isotopes decay by converting a proton to a neutron,
thus emitting a positron (an anti-electron).
• These particles can penetrate matter more than can alpha
particles, and it takes a small aluminum plate to stop most
beta particles.
• Gamma rays
• Gamma rays are photons that are emitted from the
nucleus.
• Often an atom in an excited state will de-excite by
emitting a gamma ray.
• Gamma rays are similar to light waves and x-rays,
except they are usually much higher frequency and
consequently, more energetic.
• This radiation has no charge, and can penetrate most
matter easily, requiring lead bricks for shielding.
 Uranium Enrichment

• Uranium found in nature consists largely of two

isotopes, U-235 and U-238.
• The production of energy in nuclear reactors is from
the 'fission' or splitting of the U-235 atoms, a process
which releases energy in the form of heat.
• U-235 is the main fissile isotope of uranium.
• Natural uranium contains 0.7% of the U-235 isotope.
• The remaining 99.3% is mostly the U-238 isotope
which does not contribute directly to the fission
process (though it does so indirectly by the
formation of fissile isotopes of plutonium).
• Isotope separation is a physical process to concentrate
(‘enrich’) one isotope relative to others.
• Most reactors are light water reactors (of two types
PWR and BWR) and require uranium to be enriched
from 0.7% to 3-5% U-235 in their fuel.
• This is normal low-enriched uranium (LEU).
• There is some interest in taking enrichment levels to
about 7%, and even close to 20% for certain special
power reactor fuels, as high-assay LEU (HALEU).
• Uranium-235 and U-238 are chemically identical,
but differ in their physical properties, notably their
mass.
• The nucleus of the U-235 atom contains 92 protons
and 143 neutrons, giving an atomic mass of 235
units.
• The U-238 nucleus also has 92 protons but has 146
neutrons – three more than U-235 – and therefore
has a mass of 238 units
• The difference in mass between U-235 and U-238 allows
the isotopes to be separated and makes it possible to
increase or "enrich" the percentage of U-235.
• All present and historic enrichment processes, directly or
indirectly, make use of this small mass difference
 Gaseous Diffusion

• The gaseous diffusion process uses molecular

diffusion to separate a gas from a two-gas mixture.
• The isotopic separation is accomplished by diffusing
uranium [which has been combined with fluorine to
form uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas].
• through a porous membrane (barrier), and using the
different molecular velocities of the two isotopes to
achieve separation.
• Gaseous diffusion was the first commercial process
used in the United States to enrich uranium.
• Process
• In a gaseous diffusion enrichment plant, uranium
hexafluoride (UF6) gas was fed into the plant's pipelines
where it was pumped through special filters called
barriers or porous membranes.
• The holes in the barriers were so small that there was
barely enough room for the UF6 gas molecules to pass
through as shown in this .
• The isotope enrichment occurred because the lighter
UF6 gas molecules (with the U234 and U235 atoms)
diffused faster through the barriers than the heavier
UF6 gas molecules containing U238.
• One barrier wasn't enough though. It took many hundreds of
barriers, one after the other, before the UF6 gas contained enough
U235 to be used in nuclear fuel.
• At the end of the process, the enriched UF6 gas was withdrawn from
the pipelines and condensed back into a liquid that was then poured
into containers.
• The UF6 was allowed to cool and solidify before it was transported
to fuel fabrication facilities.
• The diagram to the right illustrates the gaseous diffusion
enrichment process.
• Gas Centrifuge
• Gas centrifuge enrichment is the current process by
which commercial enrichment is being performed in the
United States.
• UF6 gas is placed in a gas centrifuge cylinder and rotated
at a high speed.
• This rotation creates a strong centrifugal force so that the
heavier gas molecules (UF6 containing U238 atoms) move
towards the outside of the cylinder.
• The lighter gas molecules (containing U235) collect closer
to the center.
• The stream that is slightly enriched in U235 is withdrawn
and fed into the next centrifuge; the next higher stage.
• The slightly depleted stream (with a lower
concentration of U235) is recycled back into the next
lower stage.
• A gas centrifuge facility contains long lines of many
rotating cylinders.
• These cylinders are connected in both series and parallel
formations.
• Centrifuge machines are interconnected to form trains
and cascades.
• At the final withdrawal point, the UF6 is enriched to the
desired amount.
BWR
PWR
 Power Reactors

• The commercial nuclear power plants that generate

electricity.
• There are several types of these power reactors. Of these,
only the Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) and Boiling
Water Reactors (BWRs) are in commercial operation .
• Select a type from the list below to view a description
and diagram of each.
• Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs)
• Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs)
 Pressurized-Water Reactor
• How Nuclear Reactors Work
• In a typical design concept of a commercial PWR, the following
process occurs:
• The core inside the reactor vessel creates heat.
• Pressurized water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to
the steam generator.
• Inside the steam generator, heat from the primary coolant loop
vaporizes the water in a secondary loop, producing steam.
• The steamline directs the steam to the main turbine, causing it to
turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity.
• The unused steam is exhausted to the condenser, where it is
condensed into water.
• The resulting water is pumped out of the condenser with a series
of pumps, reheated, and pumped back to the steam generator.
• The reactor's core contains fuel assemblies that are
cooled by water circulated using electrically powered
pumps.
• These pumps and other operating systems in the plant
receive their power from the electrical grid.
• If offsite power is lost, emergency cooling water is
supplied by other pumps, which can be powered by
onsite diesel generators.
• Other safety systems, such as the containment cooling
system, also need electric power.
• PWRs contain between 150-200 fuel assemblies
 Boiling-Water Reactor
• How Nuclear Reactors Work
• In a typical design concept of a commercial BWR, the
following process occurs:
• The core inside the reactor vessel creates heat.
• A steam-water mixture is produced when very pure water
(reactor coolant) moves upward through the core,
absorbing heat.
• The steam-water mixture leaves the top of the core and
enters the two stages of moisture separation where water
droplets are removed before the steam is allowed to enter
the steamline.
• The steamline directs the steam to the main turbine,
causing it to turn the turbine generator, which produces
electricity.
• The unused steam is exhausted to the condenser, where
it is condensed into water. The resulting water is
pumped out of the condenser with a series of pumps,
reheated, and pumped back to the reactor vessel.
• The reactor's core contains fuel assemblies that are
cooled by water circulated using electrically powered
pumps.
• These pumps and other operating systems in the plant
receive their power from the electrical grid.
• If offsite power is lost, emergency cooling water is
supplied by other pumps, which can be powered by
onsite diesel generators.
• Other safety systems, such as the containment cooling
system, also need electric power. BWRs contain between
370-800 fuel assemblies.
• Fission Reaction?