POWER SYSTEM

Power system is a set of load

interacting components like
generation.transmission,&distributio
n. Generation power is transmitted
to the load obeying
 P=v1*v2 sinQ/XL
• .WHERE,v1=send end voltage ,v2=receive end
voltage,x1=reactance of the line&Q =power
angle,phase difference between v1and v2,
• Objective of the power system,
• Gen. trans. dist.with max.availability&min.
losses of power.
• Control of active power and frequency.
• Control sof voltage and reactive power
 Normal Electric system.
Same phase angle,same nominal
voltage ,same rated currents,
frequency within limits.
• Abnormal or Faulty Condition:

If due to any reason, symmetry of the power system is disturbed, we call it a faculty
condition. It may be of two types.

a. Unsymmetrical Faults: Like phase to phase fault, phase ground faults and non
continuous faults.
b. Symmetrical Faults: In these, the system becomes abnormal but remain in
balanced condition 3 phase faults and 3 phase to ground faults.

• Other Causes Of Abnormal Conditions:

1. Decrease in frequency due to increase in demand of active power than

generation.
2. Excess reactive power causing the voltage to rise.
3. Switching over voltage due to
a. Rejection of inductive load
b. Addition of capacitive load.
4. Ferranti effect in long lightly loaded lines.
5. Lightning over voltages.
6. Shifting of system neutral.

• Principles of Protection System

Electrical Relay:
An electrical relay is a device which operates when the quantity to
which it responds changes in a prescribed manner. If such a relay is used in protection of
electrical equipments or components of power system, it is called PROTECTIVE RELAY.

Relays are for three purposes.

1. Protection.
2. Control.
3. Regulation.

Function of Protective Relay:

1. To detect the presence of a fault.
2. To identify the faulted components.
3. To initiate the appropriate circuit breaker.
Requirements of Protective System

• Speed

Damage to power system depends upon

1. Duration of fault.
2. The magnitude of fault current.

• Discrimination/Selectivity

The protective scheme should distinguish between faulty and

healthy condition. It should select and trip circuit breaker of
only faulty equipment within protected zone only, and not
beyond the protected zone. Hence minimum possible number
of circuit breakers are required to isolate the defective
components from healthy electric system.
• Sensitivity

It is the minimum value of actuating quantity to which a protective

relay can sense.

• Reliability = dependability + security

Dependability means the assurance that the relay will operate when
required. Security means that relay will not operate when not
required to.
• Relay Protective Scheme
Primary protection:
Transformers, line, reactors, buses and generators are protected by
at least one sensitive relay package which will trip quickly (about
20 ms) when a fault occurs. These relays are first line of defence
against damage to the system.
• Backup Protection
All power circuits are protected by a second or backup relay package
which is more or less independent of the other set (primary
protection). The backup operates with an intentional time delay.
• Duplicate Protection
Nowadays, relay schemes have backup relaying as such. The new
standard to protect a power system consists of two independent
relay scheme where neither of them has intentional time delay.
In addition breaker failure protection is provided on all high voltage
and some low voltage breakers.

• Zone Protection
Power system is divided into zones which can be protected by a
specialized group of relays and which can also be separated from
the rest of the system.
Open Circuit CT

When current is passing through the primary winding, the secondary winding must be
shorted either by relay burden or by shorting links. The primary of CT has few
turns so that Zp is small even when the secondary is opened accidentally with
the result that Ip changes little. However there is no longer a secondary mmf
(back emf or counter erf) in opposition to that of primary mmf and the entire Ip
becomes Ie driving the core into saturation while Ip continues to flow. When AC
current flows in saturated core then high voltage spikes are produced at
secondary and many KV developed at secondary.

Effects
1. In a saturated CT Isec is not proportional to Ip.
2. Isec will decrease than normal CT Isec.
3. Impendence effect: Zs is fixed; Ze becomes very low.
4. Flux becomes constant i.e no flux change.
5. Frequency increases, 3rd harmonic increases losses increase and heating occurs.
 CT CORES
• There are different cores in a CT. metering core, over
current ct core, differential ct core provided that if it is
ct of power transformer.
• Metering core has 15VA burden.
• Over current core has 30 VA burden.
• Differential & Distance (Z) ct core has 60 VA burden.

The characteristics of protection core and metering core

are different; have different designs and can not be
interchanged with each other. when more fault current
occurs then mechanical system of meter pivot, jewel etc
damages and hence metering core is made smaller and
should saturate earlier therefore.
But protection core should give exact replica of system
current at fault condition. So protection core would
saturate later.
CT Saturation

CT saturation is point where the excitation impendence

collapses and whole of the primary current is utilized in
exciting the core of CT i.e the Ip becomes the Iexe and
secondary output of the CT out ceases. The cause of CT
saturation is fault current which flows on fault or if CT is
opened accidentally at secondary side. DC transients are
present in the fault current which superimpose on AC
quantity having less time but high magnitude. These
transients saturate the CT core.
Ankle Point
Ankle point is a point where Ve and Ie are linear i.e Ve and
Ie are directly proportional. Operating point of CT
should be in linear portion.

Knee Point
It is a point where an increase of 10% in Vexc causes an
increase of 50% in Iexc and this is the point of saturation
of CT. Measuring CT operates between zero and ankle
point and saturation level is low. Protection CT operates
satisfactory up to knee point and saturation level is high.
Protection CT cannot be used instead of measuring CT
and vice versa.
Accuracy Classes Of CT
IEC standard (Institute of Electrotechnical Commission).
According to this standard protection core of CT is normally
designated as 5p20.
I = Composite error = ± 5%
II = P = Protection Class CT
III = ALF Accuracy limit factor = 20 times of rated
current it can withstand and then at the same time
remaining within or up to ± 5% accuracy limits.
Accuracy Class of Metering Core CT.
Normally it is written on name plate of CT as 0.5SF5
± .5% ratio error at 100 → 120% of nominal load. SF5
means that saturation factor is 5. If CT is of 500/5A then
SF 5 x 5 = 25A and CT saturates at 25A.
ANSI Standard (American National Standard Institute)
Where
I = ± 3 = % of composite error.
II = L = Low leakage CT
III = 250 volt. It is not ALF because it is in voltage terms
magnitude of voltage at CT secondary to be within
current. Here knee point voltage is 250v.
 DISTANCE RELAY
• As line impedance is proportional to length of line, hence this
relay is called distance relay.
•• Its
As line impedance is proportional to length of line, hence this relay
generic
is called namerelay.
distance or trade name is distance relay.
•• Its
Its actuating
generic name quantity
or tradeis impedance.
name is distanceThe relay.
most simple method
• to
Itslearn is illustrative
actuating quantity ismethod.
impedance. RX diagram
The mostissimple
helpful in thisto
method
regard
learn is,which is actuallyS
illustrative method. aRXgraph between
diagram R&inX this
is helpful values of line
regard
conductor so thata to
,which is actually graphshow the value
between R& Xofvalues
impedance. We prefer
of line conductor so
impedance
that to showrelays on over
the value current relays
of impedance. as impedance relays
We prefer
• coordination
on over current ofrelays
over as current relays is difficult.
•• Four
coordination
important of X-ics
over current relaysare
of 21 relays is difficult.
given as under;
•• (1)OHM
Four important
RELAY.X-ics of 21
Before itsrelays are giventhe
explanation as under;
concept of product
• relays
(1)OHM RELAY. Before
is essential. its explanation
In these relays in the concept
addition toof product
line relays
CT & line
is essential.
VT In these
an additional relays
CT or VT isin required
addition totoline CT &
make theline VT an
relay
additional CTIfor
directional. forVTdirectional
is required purpose
to make the
, relay directional. If for
directional purpose ,
• Additional CT is used then it is termed as current
polarised. Ohm relay is current polarised. In this
. into two halves for
relay additional CT is resolved
balancing purpose.The current of this additional
CT is called polarising quantity or reference
quantity. Hence ohm relay is called current
polarised. Its equation is Z COS Q=R , here
R=Constant(Line equation) .It measures only real
part i.e resistance only having units in ohm.
(2) REACTANCE RELAY
• If you install a capacitor in operating cct. Of CT
then X-ics are shifted by 90 degrees angle & cuts
reactance x-ics called reactance relay,it measures
reactance component only.
 (3) VOLTAGE POLARISED RELAY.
• Because voltage is used as reference quantity to make the
relay directional. Half polarising voltage is used on one side
and half on 2nd side for balancing purpose. Its equation is
given as under ,
• 1/R COS(ф -Ѳ)=V/I=Z ( circle equation).It is an equation of
circle whose circumference passes through origin as
under;
• For different angles it measures different impedances.The
relay measures maximum impedance where cord passes
through origin i-e cord is maximum at diameter. 99% relays
are mho type in the world. Now I/V=1/Z=Y(admittance relay).
ADMITTANCE RELAY OR MHO RELAY
• (1) It is inherently directional relay.(senses angle).It sees in
line direction.It sees in between 0 &150 degrees.
• It measures different Z at different angles.Z at 30 degree≠ Z
at 60 degree.
• Its centre lies at an angle where it measures
maximum fault impedance called max. torque angle o
relay characteristics angle (MTA or RCA).
(4) Plain Impedance X-ics.
• keep v&I constant and vary angle between v and I.Thi
relay measures same impedance for every angle ,a
circle is formed hence.A circle is formed having centre
at origin is termed as plain impedance characteristics
.IF fault impedance is within circle then relay
operates & if ZF is outside the circle ,relay does not
operate & treats it normal. Such X-ics is also called no
directional impedance distance relay.
1. These four x-ics are generic names impedance
(1)ohm (2) Reactance type (3) Mho type.(4) plain
2. Application .Line CT &line VT is required .Z relay is
used on both ends of a line section. Manufacturer
gives +ve seq. impedance of line conductor, -ve seq
impedance & zero seq. impedance. For a T/L z+ and
Z- are equal. He gives z+ seq. impedance/mile &
zero seq. impedance /mile. Let Z+=3+J4 & Z
magnitude= √ 9+16 = √25=5Ω/mile. ,Ѳ= tan.
inverse 4/3 ; ZP=V/I(relay sees voltage/PT ratio &
sees current/CT ratio). Length of line=( ) ;
Type of conductor=( )
• Zp=v/I and zs=(v/pt ratio)/(I/ct ratio) ,
• hence ,zs=v/I x(ct ratio)/(pt ratio) -eq .no.1
• Let zp=50Ω;ct ratio=500/5 A;PT
ratio=132000kv/110 volt ,putting values,
you get zs=4.17Ω , say 5Ω which is the reach
of relay . As you have set line impedance on
relay side. Line x-ics angle or LCA is usually
called ф & it is 65degrees for 132 kv line,75 for
220 kv &80-85 degrees for 500kv line.
Factors Involved In Measurement Errors
There are some factors those cause relay
apparent impedances to be different from
actual values& are given as under ;
1- power system
2-earth resistance
3-switching conditions
power system.
It has further following conditions
(a) Human calculating errors.
(b) Actual system values are different from
the designed values.
(c) Instrument transformer errors
(d) Ground resistance
(e) Arc resistance
Switching conditions
Switching aids power on system and impedance
relay mal-measures .
With different generating possibilities and inclusion
of T-off Transmission line can effect the relay
measurement s. that is why instead of single step
impedance protection we use a three step Distance
Protection consisting of zone 1,zone 2,zone 3 and a
non – directional zone if required.
 This is called over reaching .(Relay
being operated where it has not to)
conversely the relay can measure
more than the set value(say 5.5Ω).

The relay may not operate at a fault

where it has to operate. It is called
under reaching.
 The relay may not operate at fault
where it has to operate, it is called
under reaching.
To avoid over reaching first 85% of
line is protected in zone 1, rest 15%
in zone 2. zone 3 is used as back up
and back seeing .
To sense all possible faults on a T/L
we require two no. of 21 relays
,one at each end . Each relay
should have such a direction that it
must see towards line from its
respective end.
 Impedance Relays

To sense all possible faults on a

transmission line we require one
impedance relay at each end or in other
words total two number distance relays on
one transmission line of 132 kv voltage
level.Each relay should have such a
direction that it must see towards line
from its respective end.
 Non switched relays.For phase to
phase faults there are nine
• Possibilities(z1,z2,z3).For phase to ground
faults again nine possibilities exist in three
zones .It means there are eighteen different
measuring units .It has to look for its allotted
job .Each measuring unit has its own task. For
each type of fault in each zone there occurs an
independent fault measuring unit .Each unit
has a specific reference for impedance &
direction measurements.
 Hence no switching of reference or
fault values is required.
• These relays are called non switched relays &
are fast ,costly and suitable for EHV systems.
These have maximum speed of one cycle(20
milliseconds).
• Switched Relays. other type of relays use a
single measuring unit. Fault and zone
references are switched on one by one. The
trial continues till the fault values are
measured properly .
• First of all, zone no. one conditions are tried.
If fault exists in this zone relay will perform
tripping. Otherwise zone two conditions will
be switched for next trial after elapsing the
time of Z2.In these type four starting relays
are required ,one for each phase& one for
earth fault. These starting relays may be of
over current type or of plain impedance
characteristics called over current starter or
under impedance starters respectively.
• When a starting relay senses fault, it keys a
contactor controlling reference supplies to the
measuring relay according to phases and zones .
Step by step timer controls all logic switching
operations. Approximate zone times used in
WAPDA are ;
• Z1= Instantaneous or one cycle for solid state
relays.It is 5 cycles for electromechanical
impedance relays.
• Z2=350 milliseconds for solid state relays & 600
m sec. for electromechanical relays.
• Z3=740 m sec. for solid state relays &1.1 seconds
for electromechanical relays.
• Z non directional=2- 2.5 seconds.
• Switched relays are cheaper but relatively
slower than non-switched relays. These relays
are normally used on secondary transmission
system (132 kv and some times on 220 kv)
• Polarisation Classification; Impedance
relays are classified depending on nature
of reference voltage used. Some relays
use reference voltage from the same
phases on which fault has occurred .For
example for RY phase faults reference
voltage is also derived from RY phases
are termed as self polarised relays .But in
case of close up faults there is
insufficient voltage left for comparison
.To avoid this problem in some relays the
reference voltage is taken from next
healthy phases.For RY phase fault,
reference voltage is taken from YB phase.
• Voltage is taken from YB phases & are called
cross polarized relays .Hence the polarizing
voltage is taken at least from one of the
healthy phase in this case and are taken in
cyclic order.
• self polarized relays ,figure A as under
Consider the figure A.in case of mho relay a self
polarized unit has following characteristics on RX
diagram .Here

S1=V fault voltage reference vector

S2=difference vector UB=V-IZ
In case of self polarized relays S1 &S2 are
compared in measuring relay.
In elect. mech. 21 relays their torques are
compared while in electro static relays a phase
comparator compares angle between S1 &
S2.Relay will operate on all impedances lying
inside the ch-ics circle.
• If angle between S1&S2 is more than 90
degree ,points remain inside the circle and
distance relay will operate .For points outside
the circle this angle will be less than 90
degrees and relay will not operate.
Memory Polarized Relay;in case of 3 phase close
up fault all 3 phase reference voltages may
vanish i-e no reference voltage .Hence to
avoid SOTF condition a memory circuit is
employed that stores few cycles prior to fault
for reference voltage in case of switched on to
fault feature.
• Memory polarized = % age of self polarized
voltage + % of cross polarized voltage
+memory voltage.
• Off set mho ch-ics mho ch-ics off set by
shifting mho circle.
• Advantage of off set mho (1) reverse seeing
(2) power swing blocking (3)carrier signal
blocking.
• Impedance ch-ics of cross polarized relays
These relays have sufficient voltage for
reference even in case of close up faults.
• But their impedance ch-ics are slightly
changed as compared to self polarized relays.
If we consider a mho relay,cross polarized ch–
Ics are shown as under:in this case the ch-ics
are extended along - R axis,depending source
impedance to load impedance ratio .If Zs/ZL is
more then the extension in ch-ics will be
more. The ch-ics for Zs/ZL =1 and ZS/ZL= 3 are
shown on the figure
• This relay can sense fault for a point which is
outside self polarized circle but inside the
extended cross polarized circle .
• These ch-ics are helpful in case of arc
resistance compensation.
• Load encroachment if a line is heavily loaded
then Z decreases due to increase of current.
Z=V/I , and impedance ch-ics enter in starter
zone. Relay operates called load
encroachment so that load capacity limit is to
be kept in mind
.ARC COMPENSATION IN SELF POLARISED MHO
RELAYS .
By selecting relay characteristics angle Ø less
than the line angle Ѳ .See figure on next page.