Bio 2 - Reproduction& Growth

LECTURE PRESENTATIONS
For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION

Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson
Chapter 46
Animal Reproduction
Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Overview: Pairing Up for Sexual
Reproduction
• Each sea slug produces sperm and eggs; in a few
weeks, new individuals will hatch from fertilized
eggs
• Animal reproduction takes many forms
• A population outlives its member only by
reproduction, the generation of new individuals
from existing ones

Figure 46.1
Concept 46.1: Both asexual and sexual
reproduction occur in the animal kingdom
• Sexual reproduction is the creation of an
offspring by fusion of a male gamete (sperm) and
female gamete (egg) to form a zygote
• Asexual reproduction is creation of offspring
without the fusion of egg and sperm

Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
• Many invertebrates reproduce asexually by
fission, separation of a parent into two or more
individuals of about the same size

Figure 46.2
• In budding, new individuals arise from outgrowths
of existing ones
• Fragmentation is breaking of the body into pieces,
some or all of which develop into adults
• Fragmentation must be accompanied by
regeneration, regrowth of lost body parts
• Parthenogenesis is the development of a new

individual from an unfertilized egg

• Several genera of fishes, amphibians,
and lizards reproduce only by a
complex form of parthenogenesis that
involves the doubling of chromosomes
after meiosis

PARTHENOGENESIS
• The growth and development

of embryos occur without fertilization.
In animals, parthenogenesis means
development of an embryo from an
unfertilized egg cell.
• In plants parthenogenesis is a
component process of apomixis.
• Parthenogenesis is seen to occur naturally
in aphids, Daphnia, rotifers, hymenopterans
nematodes and some other invertebrates, as
well as in many plants.
• Among vertebrates, strict parthenogenesis is

only known to occur in lizards,
snakes, birds and sharks, with fish,
amphibians and reptiles exhibiting various
forms of gynogenesis and hybridogenesis (an
incomplete form of parthenogenesis).
• The first all-female (unisexual)
reproduction in vertebrates was
described in the fish Poecilia formosa in
1932. Since then at least 50 species of
unisexual vertebrate have been
described, including at least 20 fish, 25
lizards, a single snake species, frogs,
and salamanders.
The Amazon molly (Poecilia formosa) is a freshwater fish
• Other, usually sexual, species may
occasionally reproduce
parthenogenetically and Komodo
dragons; the hammerheadand blacktip
sharks are recent additions to the
known list of spontaneous
parthenogenetic vertebra
Sexual Reproduction: An Evolutionary
Enigma
• Sexual females have half as many daughters as
asexual females; this is the “two fold cost” of
sexual reproduction
• Despite this, almost all eukaryotic species
reproduce sexually

Figure 46.3-1
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Female Generation 1
Female
Figure 46.3-2

Female Generation 1
Female
Generation 2
Male
Figure 46.3-3

Female Generation 1
Female
Generation 2
Male
Generation 3
Figure 46.3-4

Female Generation 1
Female
Generation 2
Male
Generation 3
Generation 4
• Sexual reproduction results in genetic
recombination, which provides potential
advantages
– An increase in variation in offspring, providing an
increase in the reproductive success of parents in
changing environments
– An increase in the rate of adaptation
– A shuffling of genes and the elimination of harmful
genes from a population

Reproductive Cycles
• Ovulation is the release of mature eggs at the
midpoint of a female cycle
• Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles related to
changing seasons
• Reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones
and environmental cues
• Because seasonal temperature is often an
important cue in reproduction, climate change can
decrease reproductive success

REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE OF
ANIMALS
• Menstrual Cycle
– Human reproduction is regulated in
females the menstrual cycle, a regular
cyclic hormonal change which coordinate
changes in the ovary and internal
reproductive tract.
– This cycle commences at puberty and
ends at menopause.
•
• The estrous cycle
– main reproductive cycle of other species
females of non-primate vertebrates,
– for example rats, mice, horses, pig have
this form of reproductive cycle.
– do not confuse with "estrus", which is a
phase of the cycle.
•
Variety forms OF ESTROUS CYCLE :
• Polyestrous Animals - Estrous cycles
throughout the year (cattle, pigs, mice, rats).
• Seasonally Polyestrous Animals - Animals
that have multiple estrous cycles only during
certain periods of the year (horses, sheep,
goats, deer, cats).
• Monestrous Animals - Animals that have
one estrous cycle per year (dogs, wolves,
foxes, and bear)
REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE OF
PLANTS
• Plant is very different from the life cycle of an
animal.
– Humans are made entirely
of diploid cells (cells with two sets
of chromosomes, referred to as ''2n''). Our only
cells that are haploid cells (cells with one set
of chromosomes, ''n'') are sperm and egg cells.
– Plants, however, can live when they are at the

stage of having haploid cells or diploid cells.
• Plants alternate between diploid-cell
plants and haploid-cell plants. This is
called alternation of generations,
because the plant type alternates
from generation to generation.
• In alternation of generations, the
plant alternates between
a sporophyte that has
diploid cells and a gametophyte that
has haploid cells.
• Alternation of generations can be
summarized in the following four steps:
– The haploid gametophyte produces the gametes,
or sperm and egg, by mitosis. Remember,
gametes are haploid, having one set
of chromosomes.
– Then, the sperm fertilizes the egg, producing a
diploid zygote that develops into the sporophyte,
which of course, is diploid.
– The diploid sporophyte produces
haploid spores by meiosis.
– The haploid spores go through mitosis, developing
into the haploid gametophyte
Variation in Patterns of Sexual
Reproduction
• For many animals, finding a partner for sexual
reproduction may be challenging
• One solution is hermaphroditism, in which each
individual has male and female reproductive
systems
• Two hermaphrodites can mate, and some
hermaphrodites can self-fertilize

• Individuals of some species undergo sex
reversals
• Some species exhibit male to female reversal

(for example, certain oysters), while others
exhibit female to male reversal (for example, a
coral reef fish)

Concept 2: Fertilization depends on
mechanisms that bring together sperm and
eggs of the same species
• The mechanisms of fertilization, the union of
egg and sperm, play an important part in sexual
reproduction
• In external fertilization, eggs shed by the

female are fertilized by sperm in the external
environment

• In internal fertilization, sperm are deposited in or
near the female reproductive tract, and fertilization
occurs within the tract
• Internal fertilization requires behavioral

interactions and compatible copulatory organs
• All fertilization requires critical timing, often

mediated by environmental cues, pheromones,
and/or courtship behavior

Figure 46.6
Ensuring the Survival of Offspring
• Internal fertilization is typically associated with
production of fewer gametes but the survival of
a higher fraction of zygotes
• Internal fertilization is also often associated with

mechanisms to provide protection of embryos
and parental care of young

• The embryos of some terrestrial animals
develop in eggs with calcium- and protein-
containing shells and several internal
membranes
• Some other animals retain the embryo, which

develops inside the female
• In many animals, parental care helps ensure

survival of offspring

Figure 46.7
Gamete Production and Delivery
• To reproduce sexually, animals must produce
gametes
• In most species individuals have gonads,
organs that produce gametes
• Some simple systems do not have gonads, but
gametes form from undifferentiated tissue
• More elaborate systems include sets of
accessory tubes and glands that carry, nourish,
and protect gametes and developing embryos

• Most insects have separate sexes with
complex reproductive systems
• In many insects, the female has a

spermatheca in which sperm is stored during
copulation

Figure 46.8
Accessory
gland Testis Ovary
Oviduct
Vas Spermatheca
deferens
Ejaculatory
duct Seminal Uterus
vesicle Accessory
Penis and gland Vulva
claspers
(a) Male fruit fly (b) Female fruit fly

Figure 46.8a
Accessory
gland Testis
Vas
deferens
Ejaculatory
Seminal
duct
vesicle
Penis and
claspers
(a) Male fruit fly
Figure 46.8b
Ovary
Oviduct
Spermatheca
Uterus
Accessory
gland Vulva
(b) Female fruit fly

• A cloaca is a common opening between the
external environment and the digestive,
excretory, and reproductive systems
• A cloaca is common in non mammalian

vertebrates; mammals usually have a separate
opening to the digestive tract

• Monogamy is relatively rare among animals
• Males and/or females of some species have

evolved mechanisms to decrease the chance
of their mate mating with another individual
• Females can sometimes influence the

relative reproductive success of their mates

Figure 46.9
RESULTS
lacking sperm in spermatheca
Percentage of females
30
20
10
0
Control; Remated to Remated to Remated to
not wild-type “no-sperm” “no-ejaculate”
remated males males males
Reproductive Organs of Animals
Cockroach
Cirrates
Cirrina or Cirrata is a suborder and one of the two main divisions of octopuses.
Cirrate octopuses
Starfish
Reproductive Organs of Animals Snail
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS -
FISH
REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN - BULL
REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN - WORM
Concept 3: Reproductive organs produce
and transport gametes
• PLANTS

Concept 3: Reproductive organs produce
and transport gametes
• PLANTS

REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN OF
GYMNOSPERM
GYMNOSPERM
FERN
Concept 46.3: Reproductive organs
produce and transport gametes
• The following section focuses on the human
reproductive system

Female Reproductive Anatomy
• The female external reproductive structures
include the clitoris and two sets of labia
• The internal organs are a pair of gonads and a

system of ducts and chambers that carry gametes
and house the embryo and fetus

Figure 46.10b
Oviduct
Ovaries
Follicles
Corpus luteum
Uterus Uterine wall
Endometrium
Cervix
Vagina
Ovaries
• The female gonads, the ovaries, lie in the
abdominal cavity
• Each ovary contains many follicles, which consist
of a partially developed egg, called an oocyte,
surrounded by support cells
• Once a month, an oocyte develops into an ovum
(egg) by the process of oogenesis

• Ovulation expels an egg cell from the follicle, the
cells of which produce estradiol prior to ovulation
• The remaining follicular tissue grows within the
ovary, forming a mass called the corpus luteum
• The corpus luteum secretes estradiol and
progesterone that helps to maintain pregnancy
• If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum
degenerates

Oviducts and Uterus
• The egg cell travels from the ovary to the uterus
via an oviduct, or fallopian tube
• Cilia in the oviduct convey the egg to the uterus,
also called the womb
• The uterus lining, the endometrium, has many
blood vessels
• The uterus narrows at the cervix, then opens into
the vagina

Vagina and Vulva
• The vagina is a thin-walled chamber that is the
repository for sperm during copulation and serves
as the birth canal
• The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva,
which consists of the labia majora, labia minora,
hymen, and clitoris

• The clitoris has a head called a glans covered by
the prepuce
• The vagina, labia minora, and clitoris are rich with
blood vessels; the clitoris also has many nerve
endings

Mammary Glands
• The mammary glands are not part of the
reproductive system but are important to
mammalian reproduction
• Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue
secrete milk

Male Reproductive Anatomy
• The male’s external reproductive organs are the
scrotum and penis
• Internal organs are the gonads, which produce

sperm and hormones, and accessory glands

Figure 46.11
Seminal
vesicle
(behind (Urinary bladder)
bladder)
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland
Urethra
Erectile tissue of penis
Scrotum Vas deferens
Epididymis
Testis
(Urinary bladder)
Seminal vesicle (Urinary duct)

(Rectum) (Pubic bone)
Vas deferens
Erectile
Ejaculatory duct tissue
Prostate gland Urethra
Penis
Bulbourethral gland Vas deferens
Glans
Epididymis
Testis
Scrotum Prepuce
Figure 46.11a
Seminal
vesicle
(behind (Urinary bladder)
bladder)
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland
Urethra
Erectile tissue of penis
Scrotum Vas deferens
Epididymis
Testis
Figure 46.11b
(Urinary bladder)
Seminal vesicle (Urinary duct)

(Rectum) (Pubic bone)
Vas deferens
Erectile
Ejaculatory duct tissue
Prostate gland
Urethra Penis
Bulbourethral gland Vas deferens Glans
Epididymis
Testis Prepuce
Scrotum
Testes
• The male gonads, or testes, consist of highly
coiled tubes surrounded by connective tissue
• Sperm form in these seminiferous tubules
• Leydig cells produce hormones and are scattered
between the tubules
• Production of normal sperm cannot occur at the
body temperatures of most mammals

• The testes of many mammals are held outside the
abdominal cavity in the scrotum, where the
temperature is lower than in the abdominal cavity

Ducts
• From the seminiferous tubules of a testis, sperm
pass into the coiled tubules of the epididymis
• During ejaculation, sperm are propelled through
the muscular vas deferens and the ejaculatory
duct, and then exit the penis through the urethra

Accessory Glands
• Semen is composed of sperm plus secretions
from three sets of accessory glands
• The two seminal vesicles contribute about 60%
of the total volume of semen
• The prostate gland secretes its products directly
into the urethra through several small ducts
• The bulbourethral glands secrete a clear mucus
before ejaculation that neutralizes acidic urine
remaining in the urethra

Penis
• The human penis is composed of three cylinders
of spongy erectile tissue
• During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with
blood from the arteries, causing an erection
• The head of the penis has a thinner skin covering
than the shaft and is more sensitive to stimulation

Gametogenesis
• Gametogenesis, the production of gametes,
differs in male and female, reflecting the distinct
structure and function of their gametes
• Sperm are small and motile and must pass from
male to female
• Eggs are larger and carry out their function within
the female

• Spermatogenesis, the development of sperm, is
continuous and prolific (millions of sperm are
produced per day; each sperm takes about 7
weeks to develop
• Oogenesis, the development of a mature egg, is a
prolonged process
• Immature eggs form in the female embryo but do
not complete their development until years or
decades later

• Spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis in
three ways
– All four products of meiosis develop into
sperm while only one of the four becomes an
egg
– Spermatogenesis occurs throughout

adolescence and adulthood
– Sperm are produced continuously without the

prolonged interruptions in oogenesis

Figure 46.12a
Epididymis
Seminiferous tubule
Testis
Primordial germ cell in embryo
Cross section of
seminiferous tubule Mitotic divisions
Spermatogonial 2n
stem cell
Mitotic divisions
Sertoli cell
nucleus
Spermatogonium 2n
Mitotic divisions
Primary spermatocyte 2n
Meiosis I
Secondary spermatocyte n n
Meiosis II
Lumen of
seminiferous tubule
Spermatids Early
Neck spermatid n n n n
(two stages)
Tail Midpiece Head Differentiation
Plasma (Sertoli cells
membrane provide nutrients)
Sperm cell n n n n
Acrosome
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Figure 46.12aa
Epididymis Seminiferous
Sertoli cell
tubule nucleus
Spermato-
gonium
Primary
Testis spermatocyte
Cross section of
seminiferous tubule Secondary
spermatocyte
Spermatids
(two stages)
Sperm cell
Lumen of
seminiferous tubule
Figure 46.12ab
Primordial germ cell in embryo
Mitotic divisions
Spermatogonial stem cell 2n

Mitotic divisions
Spermatogonium 2n
Mitotic divisions
Primary spermatocyte 2n
Meiosis I
Secondary spermatocyte n n
Meiosis II
Early
n n n n
spermatid
Differentiation
(Sertoli cells
provide nutrients)
Sperm cell n n n n
Figure 46.12ac
Neck
Tail Midpiece Head
Plasma
membrane
Acrosome
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Figure 46.12b
Primary
Ovary oocyte
within
follicle
Growing
Primordial germ cell In embryo follicle
Mitotic divisions
2n Oogonium
Mitotic divisions
Primary oocyte Mature follicle

2n (present at birth), arrested
in prophase of meiosis I
Ruptured
Completion of meiosis I follicle
First and onset of meiosis II
polar n
n Secondary oocyte,
body
arrested at metaphase of Ovulated
meiosis II secondary
oocyte
Ovulation, sperm entry
Completion of meiosis II
Second Corpus luteum
polar n
body
Fertilized egg
n
Degenerating
corpus luteum
Figure 46.12ba
Ovary
Ruptured
Primary follicle
oocyte
within
follicle
Ovulated
secondary
Growing oocyte
follicle
Corpus luteum
Mature follicle
Degenerating
corpus luteum
Figure 46.12bb
Primordial germ cell In embryo
Mitotic divisions
2n Oogonium
Mitotic divisions
Primary oocyte
2n (present at birth), arrested
in prophase of meiosis I
Completion of meiosis I
First and onset of meiosis II
polar n
n Secondary oocyte,
body arrested at metaphase of
meiosis II
Ovulation, sperm entry
Completion of meiosis II
Second
polar n
body
Fertilized egg
n
Concept 46.4: The interplay of tropic and
sex hormones regulates mammalian
reproduction
• Human reproduction is coordinated by
hormones from the hypothalamus, anterior
pituitary, and gonads
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is
secreted by the hypothalamus and directs the
release of FSH and LH from the anterior
pituitary
• FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads
and the production of sex hormones
• Sex hormones serve many functions in
addition to gamete production, including sexual
behavior and the development of primary and
secondary sex characteristics

Hormonal Control of the Female
Reproductive Cycles
• In females, the secretion of hormones and the
reproductive events they regulate are cyclic
• Prior to ovulation, the endometrium thickens with
blood vessels in preparation for embryo
implantation
• If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium,
the endometrium is shed in a process called
menstruation

• Hormones closely link the two cycles of female
reproduction
– Changes in the uterus define the menstrual cycle
(also called the uterine cycle)
– Changes in the ovaries define the ovarian cycle

Figure 46.13 (a) Control by hypothalamus
Inhibited by combination of
estradiol and progesterone
Hypothalamus 
Stimulated by high levels
 of estradiol
1 GnRH
Anterior pituitary Inhibited by low levels of

 estradiol
2 FSH LH
(b) Pituitary gonadotropins 6

in blood
LH
FSH
3 FSH and LH stimulate LH surge triggers

follicle to grow ovulation
(c) Ovarian cycle 7 8
Growing follicle Corpus Degenerating

Maturing luteum corpus luteum
follicle
Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase
Estradiol secreted Progesterone and
4 by growing follicle in estradiol secreted
increasing amounts by corpus luteum
(d) Ovarian hormones Peak causes
in blood LH surge
(see 6 )
5
10
Estradiol 9
Progesterone
Estradiol level Progesterone and estra-

very low diol promote thickening
of endometrium
(e) Uterine (menstrual) cycle
Endometrium
Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase

Days
0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28
Figure 46.13a
(a) Control by hypothalamus Inhibited by combination of

 estradiol and progesterone
Hypothalamus
Stimulated by high levels
GnRH  of estradiol
1
Anterior pituitary Inhibited by low levels of

 estradiol
2 FSH LH
Figure 46.13b
(b) Pituitary gonadotropins

in blood 6
LH
FSH
3 FSH and LH stimulate LH surge triggers
follicle to grow ovulation
(c) Ovarian cycle 7 8
Growing follicle Corpus Degenerating

Maturing luteum corpus luteum
follicle
Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase
Days
0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28
Figure 46.13c
Estradiol secreted Progesterone and
4 by growing follicle in estradiol secreted
increasing amounts by corpus luteum
(d) Ovarian hormones Peak causes
in blood LH surge
(see 6 )
5
10
Estradiol 9
Progesterone
Estradiol level Progesterone and estra-

very low diol promote thickening
of endometrium
(e) Uterine (menstrual) cycle
Endometrium
(e)
Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase

Days
0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28
The Ovarian Cycle
• The sequential release of GnRH then FSH and
LH stimulates follicle growth
• Follicle growth and an increase in the hormone
estradiol characterize the follicular phase of
the ovarian cycle
• The follicular phase ends at ovulation, and the
secondary oocyte is released

• Following ovulation, the follicular tissue left behind
transforms into the corpus luteum; this is the
luteal phase
• The corpus luteum disintegrates, and ovarian
steroid hormones decrease

Animation: Post Ovulation
Right-click slide / select “Play”
The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
• Hormones coordinate the uterine cycle with the
ovarian cycle
– Thickening of the endometrium during the
proliferative phase coordinates with the follicular
phase
– Secretion of nutrients during the secretory phase
coordinates with the luteal phase
– Shedding of the endometrium during the
menstrual flow phase coordinates with the
growth of new ovarian follicles

• A new cycle begins if no embryo implants in the
endometrium
• Cells of the uterine lining can sometimes migrate
to an abnormal, or ectopic, location
• Swelling of these cells in response to hormone
stimulation results in a disorder called
endometriosis

Menopause
• After about 500 cycles, human females undergo
menopause, the cessation of ovulation and
menstruation
• Menopause is very unusual among animals
• Menopause might have evolved to allow a mother
to provide better care for her children and
grandchildren

Menstrual Versus Estrous Cycles
• Menstrual cycles are characteristic only of humans
and some other primates
– The endometrium is shed from the uterus in a
bleeding called menstruation
– Sexual receptivity is not limited to a time frame

• Estrous cycles are characteristic of most
mammals
– The endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus
– Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period
– The length and frequency of estrus cycles vary
from species to species

Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive
System
• FSH promotes the activity of Sertoli cells, which
nourish developing sperm
• LH regulates Leydig cells, which secrete
testosterone and other androgens, which in turn
promote spermatogenesis

Animation: Male Hormones
Right-click slide / select “Play”
Figure 46.14

Hypothalamus
GnRH
 
Anterior pituitary
Negative feedback
Negative feedback
FSH LH
Sertoli cells Leydig cells
Inhibin Spermatogenesis Testosterone
Testis
• Testosterone regulates the production of GnRH,
FSH, and LH through negative feedback
mechanisms
• Sertoli cells secrete the hormone inhibin, which
reduces FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary

Human Sexual Response
• Two reactions predominate in both sexes
– Vasocongestion, the filling of tissue with blood
– Myotonia, increased muscle tension
• The sexual response cycle has four phases:
excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
• Excitement prepares the penis and vagina for
coitus (sexual intercourse)

• Direct stimulation of genitalia maintains the
plateau phase and prepares the vagina for receipt
of sperm
• Orgasm is characterized by rhythmic contractions
of reproductive structures
– In males, semen is first released into the urethra
and then ejaculated from the urethra
– In females, the uterus and outer vagina contract

• During the resolution phase, organs return to their
normal state and muscles relax

Concept 46.5: In placental mammals, an
embryo develops fully within the mother’s
uterus
• An egg develops into an embryo in a series of
predictable events

Conception, Embryonic Development, and
Birth
• Conception, fertilization of an egg by a sperm,
occurs in the oviduct
• The resulting zygote begins to divide by mitosis in
a process called cleavage
• Division of cells gives rise to a blastocyst, a ball
of cells with a central cavity

Figure 46.15
3 Cleavage
4 Cleavage
continues
Ovary
2 Fertilization
Uterus 5 Implantation
1 Ovulation
Endometrium
(a) From ovulation to implantation
Endometrium Inner cell

mass
Cavity
Blastocyst Trophoblast
(b) Implantation of blastocyst
• After blastocyst formation, the embryo implants
into the endometrium
• The embryo releases human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG), which prevents
menstruation
• Pregnancy, or gestation, is the condition of
carrying one or more embryos in the uterus
• Duration of pregnancy in other species correlates
with body size and maturity of the young at birth

• Pregnancies can terminate spontaneously due to
chromosomal or developmental abnormalities
• An ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg
begins to develop in the fallopian tube

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
First Trimester
• Human gestation can be divided into three
trimesters of about three months each
• The first trimester is the time of most radical
change for both the mother and the embryo
• During implantation, the endometrium grows over
the blastocyst

• During its first 2 to 4 weeks, the embryo obtains
nutrients directly from the endometrium
• Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst, called
the trophoblast, mingles with the endometrium
and eventually forms the placenta
• Blood from the embryo travels to the placenta
through arteries of the umbilical cord and returns
via the umbilical vein

Figure 46.16
Maternal Maternal
arteries veins
Placenta
Umbilical
cord Maternal
portion of
Chorionic placenta
villus,
containing
fetal
capillaries Fetal
portion of
Maternal placenta
blood pool (chorion)
Uterus
Fetal arteriole Fetal venule Umbilical
arteries
Umbilical cord
Umbilical vein
• Splitting of the embryo during the first month of
development results in genetically identical twins
• Release and fertilization of two eggs result in
fraternal and genetically distinct twins

• The first trimester is the main period of
organogenesis, development of the body organs
• All the major structures are present by 8 weeks,
and the embryo is called a fetus

• Changes occur in the mother
– Mucus plug to protect against infection
– Growth of the placenta and uterus
– Cessation of ovulation and the menstrual cycle
– Breast enlargement
– Nausea is also very common

Figure 46.17
(a) 5 weeks (b) 14 weeks (c) 20 weeks

Figure 46.17a
(a) 5 weeks
Figure 46.17b
(b) 14 weeks
Figure 46.17c
(c) 20 weeks
Second Trimester
• During the second trimester
– The fetus grows and is very active
– The mother may feel fetal movements
– The uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to
become obvious

Third Trimester
• During the third trimester, the fetus grows and fills
the space within the embryonic membranes
• A complex interplay of local regulators and
hormones induces and regulates labor, the
process by which childbirth occurs

Figure 46.18
Estradiol Oxytocin

from from fetus
ovaries and mother’s
posterior pituitary
Activates oxytocin
Positive feedback
receptors on uterus
Stimulates uterus
to contract
Stimulates
placenta to make 
Prostaglandins
Stimulate more
contractions
of uterus
• Labor typically has three stages
– Thinning and opening of the cervix, or dilation
– Expulsion or delivery of the baby
– Delivery of the placenta

Figure 46.19
Placenta
Umbilical cord
Uterus
Cervix
1 Dilation of the cervix
2 Expulsion: delivery of the infant
Uterus
Placenta
(detaching)
Umbilical cord
3 Delivery of the placenta

Figure 46.19a
Placenta
Umbilical cord
Uterus
Cervix
1 Dilation of the cervix

Figure 46.19b
2 Expulsion: delivery of the infant

Figure 46.19c
Uterus
Placenta
(detaching)
Umbilical
cord
3 Delivery of the placenta

• Delivery of the baby and placenta is brought about
by a series of strong, rhythmic uterine contractions
• Lactation, the production of milk, is unique to
mammals

INSECT GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
• Ametabolism is a type of growth or life
cycle in insects in which there is slight
or no metamorphosis, only a gradual
increase in size. It is present only in
primitive wingless insects, e.g. order:
Thysanura (Silverfish).
•
Silverfish
• In hemimetabolous insects, immature
stages are called nymphs. Development
proceeds in repeated stages of growth
and ecdysis (moulting); these stages
are called instars. The juvenile forms
closely resemble adults, but are smaller
and lack adult features such as wings
and genitalia.
• In a complete metamophosis
(holometabolous development) the
insect passes through four distinct
phases, which produce an adult that
does not resemble the larva.
Growth and Development of
Kangaroo
The developmental stages
of scyphozoan jellyfish's
life cycle:
1–3 Larva searches for site
4–8 Polyp grows
9–11 Polyp strobilates
Strobilation or transverse fission is a form
of asexual reproduction consisting of the
spontaneous transverse segmentation of the
body.
12–14 Medusa grows
Milkfish
GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT -
WORM
LECTURE PRESENTATIONS
For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION
Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson
Plant Growth and Development
Seeds
Flowers
Fruits
Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick

Seeds Start it All
• Seed contain
embryos that form
into new plants.
• Seeds can stay
dormant for 1000’s
of yrs.
• Favorable
conditions or
damage to a seed
coat start growth
Some seeds
• Need light exposure • Damage to seed

• Soil moisture coat through….
• Perfect temperature – Fire
• Or any – Passing through the
environmental digestive tract of
animals
change that can
– Falling on a rock
spark rapid growth.
– Once the damage is
done the seed must
fill up with enough
water and oxygen to
grow
Monocot seed growth vs. dicot
Seed Parts
•
Seed parts continued
• Monocot- • Dicot
– Seed coat for – Seed coat (protect)
protection – Radicle (root)
– Radicle is the – Hypocotyl (stem)
embryonic root – Epicotyl (leaf)
– Plumule is the – 2 cotyledons (seed
embryonic leaf leaves for primary
nutrients to embryo)
– Endospermis
– Endosperm matured
nutrition into cotyledons
– 1 cotyledon (seed
leaf)
Fertilization of seedless plants
• Zygote develops
into sporophyte
• Spores develop into
gametophytes
• Antheridia (male)
• Archegonia
(female)
• Male swim to
female
• Zygote is formed
Fertilization of Gymnosperms
• Immature seed
cone (female)
• Pollen cone (male)
• Gametophytes
• Female + male =
zygote
• Pine seed with wing
is the zygote
(sporophyte)
Fertilization of Angiosperms
• Pollen (male) from

the anther
(gametophyte)
• Ovule (female) from
the ovary
(gametophyte)
• Pollination = zygote
• Zygote = seed
• Flower becomes a
fruit.
Flower parts
• Petals attract
pollinators
• Sepal protects the
flower
• Stamen is the male
reproductive organ
• Filament holds anther
which contains pollen
• Pistil is female organ
that has stigma to
catch pollen to send
down pollen tube to
ovary (ovule)
Growing without seeds
• It’s called vegetative reproduction and

occurs with roots stems or leaves.
• Helps allow plants to cover areas faster
• 100’s and 1000’s from one single plant
• Examples include: runners (bermuda
grass), bulb (onion or tulip), Corm
(gladiolus), Rhizome (Fern), Tuber
(potato)
Runner
• Horizontal above
ground stem that
helps the plant
spread within an
area.
Bulb
• Very short stem

with thick fleshy
leaves
Corm
• Very short thick

underground stem
with thin scaly
leaves
Rhizome
• Horizontal
underground stem
Tuber
• Swollen fleshy
underground stem
THANK YOU…….
Maternal Immune Tolerance of the Embryo
and Fetus
• A woman’s acceptance of her “foreign” offspring is
not fully understood
• It may be due to suppression of the immune
response in her uterus

Contraception and Abortion
• Contraception, the deliberate prevention of
pregnancy, can be achieved in a number of ways
• Contraceptive methods fall into three categories
– Preventing release of eggs and sperm
– Keeping sperm and egg apart
– Preventing implantation of an embryo

• A health-care provider should be consulted for
complete information on the choice and risks of
contraception methods

Figure 46.20
Male Female
Method Event Event Method
Production Production of
of sperm primary oocytes
Vasectomy Combination
birth control
pill (or injection,
Sperm transport Oocyte patch, or
down male development vaginal ring)
duct system and ovulation
Abstinence Abstinence
Condom Female condom
Coitus
interruptus
Sperm Capture of the
(very high
deposited oocyte by the
failure rate)
in vagina oviduct
Tubal ligation
Spermicides;
diaphragm;
Sperm Transport progestin alone
movement of oocyte in (as minipill
through female oviduct or injection)
reproductive
tract
Meeting of sperm and oocyte

in oviduct
Morning-after
Union of sperm and egg pill; intrauterine
device (IUD)
Implantation of blastocyst
in endometrium
Figure 46.20a
Male Female
Production Production of
of sperm primary oocytes
Vasectomy Combination
birth control
pill (or injection,
Sperm transport Oocyte patch, or
down male development vaginal ring)
duct system and ovulation
Abstinence Abstinence
Condom Female condom
Coitus
interruptus
Sperm Capture of the
(very high
deposited oocyte by the
failure rate) in vagina oviduct
Tubal ligation
Spermicides;
diaphragm;
progestin alone
(as minipill
or injection)
Figure 46.20b
Male Female
Sperm Transport
movement of oocyte in
through female oviduct
reproductive
tract
Meeting of sperm and oocyte

in oviduct
Morning-after
Union of sperm and egg pill; intrauterine
device (IUD)
Implantation of blastocyst
in endometrium
• The rhythm method, or natural family planning,
is to refrain from intercourse when conception is
most likely; it has a pregnancy rate of 10–20%
• Coitus interruptus, the withdrawal of the penis
before ejaculation, is unreliable
• Barrier methods block fertilization with a
pregnancy rate of less than 10%
– A condom fits over the penis
– A diaphragm is inserted into the vagina before
intercourse

• Intrauterine devices (IUDs) are inserted into the
uterus and interfere with fertilization and
implantation; the pregnancy rate is less than 1%
• Female birth control pills are hormonal
contraceptives with a pregnancy rate of less than
1%

• Sterilization is permanent and prevents the
release of gametes
– Tubal ligation ties off the oviducts
– Vasectomy ties off the vas deferens
• Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy
• Spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, occurs in
up to one-third of all pregnancies
• The drug RU486 results in an abortion within the
first 7 weeks of a pregnancy

Modern Reproductive Technologies
• Recent advances are addressing reproductive
problems

Detecting Disorders During Pregnancy
• Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling are
invasive techniques in which amniotic fluid or fetal
cells are obtained for genetic analysis
• Noninvasive procedures usually use ultrasound
imaging to detect fetal condition
• Genetic testing of the fetus poses ethical
questions and can present parents with difficult
decisions

Treating Infertility
• Modern technology can provide infertile couples
with assisted reproductive technologies
• In vitro fertilization (IVF) mixes eggs with sperm
in culture dishes and returns the embryo to the
uterus at the 8-cell stage
• Sperm are injected directly into an egg in a type of
IVF called intracytoplasmic sperm injection
(ICSI)

Video: Ultrasound of Human Fetus 1
Video: Ultrasound of Human Fetus 2
Figure 46.UN01
Human gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
2n
Primary Primary
2n
spermatocyte oocyte
n Polar body
Secondary Secondary
n n n
spermatocytes oocyte
n n n n Spermatids
n n n n
Sperm
n Polar body
n Fertilized egg
Figure 46.UN02

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LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Parthenogenesis is the development of a new

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• The growth and development

• Among vertebrates, strict parthenogenesis is

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

– Plants, however, can live when they are at the

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Some species exhibit male to female reversal

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• In external fertilization, eggs shed by the

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Internal fertilization requires behavioral

• All fertilization requires critical timing, often

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Internal fertilization is also often associated with

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Some other animals retain the embryo, which

• In many animals, parental care helps ensure

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• In many insects, the female has a

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) Male fruit fly (b) Female fruit fly

(b) Female fruit fly

• A cloaca is common in non mammalian

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Males and/or females of some species have

• Females can sometimes influence the

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• The internal organs are a pair of gonads and a

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Internal organs are the gonads, which produce

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Seminal vesicle (Urinary duct)

Seminal vesicle (Urinary duct)

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bio 2 - Reproduction& Growth

Bio 2 - Reproduction& Growth