Health Physics

3:
Medical Cyclotrons
Nuclear Power Reactors
Lasers
 Medical Cyclotron

Why a medical cyclotron ?

Ref. : Sorenson & Phelps: Physics in

Nuclear Medicine
 Medical Cyclotron

On-site Production of Short-lived

PET Tracers:
C-11 T1/2 ~ 20 min
N-13 T1/2 ~ 10 min
O-15 T1/2 ~ 2 min
F-18 T1/2 ~ 2 hr
 PET Tracers

Carbon -11
Nitrogen -13 (F-18 ~ H)
Oxygen -15

Are all natural constituents of

human body (unlike Tc-99m).
 Medical Cyclotron
•Relatively low-energy particles:
~20 MeV protons
~10 MeV deuterons
•But relatively large beam current:
~ 500 micro-A to yield large
activities
•For quality medical imaging!
A Cyclotron as Seen by …
A Cyclotron as Seen by …
A Cyclotron as Seen by …
A Cyclotron as Seen by …
A Cyclotron as Seen by …
A Cyclotron as Seen by …
Cyclotron Principle
Cyclotron Principle
Positive Ion Cyclotron
Beam Extraction on Negative Ion Machine
Proton Beam Extraction:
2 electrons are removed from proton-ion
beam by carbon stripping foil
 Negative Ion Cyclotron

Advantages:
•more efficient beam extraction
•less internal component activation
•dual beam extraction possibility
•simple mechanism
Cyclotron Produced Radio-Nuclides
Cyclotron Produced Radio-Nuclides

Are usually carrier-free:

Reason: mostly (p,n), (d,n) reactions

Therefore: target material and
radioactive product are not the same
chemical species (Z changes).
 RDS System
(Radioisotope Delivery System)
 Nuclear Power Reactor

References:

1) Health Physics (Dr. Robert Corns)

Chapter 11

2) Sorenson & Phelps: Physics in

Nuclear Medicine
 Nuclear Power Reactor

Produces important “by-products” for

medical care:

Examples:
• Fission products (e.g. 99Mo, 131I)

• Activation products (e.g. 60Co, 32P)

Nuclear Power Reactor
Neutron Capture – Fission –
more Neutrons

nf
U-235
f.p.
nf
nth

nf
f.p.
 Chain Reaction ?
Neutrons from first fission
may induce other fissions.
 Natural Uranium
Composition:
0.71% of 235U

99.28% of 238U

Natural Uranium by itself will not

sustain a chain reaction.
 Neutron Moderator

A substance containing light

nuclei (e.g. D2 O) is most
effective in slowing down
neutrons to thermal energies
(~ 0.025 eV) through elastic
scattering.
 Neutron Moderator
Thermal neutrons (E~0.025eV) are more
likely to induce fissions.
Chain Reaction: The Fission Cycle
Reproduction factor k=1

start here
 Critical Size
The more neutrons in the reactor core, the
more likely a chain reaction will occur.

Neutrons are lost through:

1) absorption in the core and
2) leakage from surface of reactor
Therefore:
A small reactor surface over reactor
volume ratio (S/V) will favor a chain reaction.
 Critical Size
For small reactor: S/V = 6
For large reactor: S/V = 3
 Reactor Control

Insert neutron-absorbing control

rods into reactor (B, Cd).

In CANDU reactor, change level of

heavy water moderator (D2 O).
Reactor Control
The CANDU Power Reactor

CANadian Deuterium Uranium

Uses Natural Uranium as fuel and

Heavy Water (D2O) as a moderator

This makes the CANDU very safe !

CANDU Reactor
Radiation Hazards from Reactor
During Operation !
 Reactor Shielding
Avoid streaming of radiation (neutrons!)

Compare with maze in cyclotron vault

Radiation Hazards from Reactor

When reactor is shut down :

Fission Products and

Activation Products

Continue to be a source of radiation hazard!

Fission Fragment Yield for U-235
Important Fission Products

Strontium-90
Molybdenum-99
Iodine-131
Xenon-133
Cesium-137
Fission Product Build-Up

Short T1/2 : fast build-up

Equilibrium Activities for some
Fission Products

Iodine-131: 17’360 Ci
Iodine-133: 35’770 Ci
Xenon-133: 35’780 Ci
Fission Product Release
Fission Product Release

Release of radio-iodines (e.g. I-131):

• Half-Life: ~ 8 days
• Volatile, vapor form
• Contaminate grass, milk
• Target the thyroid gland

Prevention: Pre-loading of thyroid with

“cold” iodine.
 Neutron Activation
Neutrons activate elements
present in reactor, mainly via
(n,gamma) and (n,p) reactions):

• moderator, coolant
• corrosion elements in coolant

• commercial production ports

Unwanted Activation Products

Tritium: (from D2O), vapor!

Co-60: (from Co-59, corrosion)

contaminates cooling
system, pipes!
Useful Activation Products
Reactor Produced Radio-Nuclides

Are usually not carrier-free:

Reason: mostly (n,gamma) reactions

Therefore: target material and
radioactive product are the same
chemical species (Z does not change).
Reactor Cool-Off Period
 Lasers

Frequent application in health

care institutions:

Patient positioning and

alignment devices in scanning
and radio-therapy equipment.
Lasers
 Lasers

Example: ECAT PET scanner

Laser Radiation
Do not Stare into Beam
Class II Laser Product
(1 mW maximum output)
Wavelength: 600 to 700nm
 Lasers

Biological Effects:
Principally temperature
effects (burns).

Critical Organs: eye, skin

 Classification of Lasers
Class I: not hazardous

Class II: continuous (but not momentary)

intrabeam exposure damages eye

Class III: can damage eye during

momentary intrabeam exposure

Class IV: damage to eye from momentary

intrabeam exposure and from
exposure to diffuse reflection
 Lasers

Protective Eye Wear:

Goggles should be adapted to

the type (wavelength!) of laser
being used.
 Ultraviolet Radiation

Attention:
UV light (wavelength ~ 300nm) was (is?)
used in operating rooms to keep
equipment sterile.
Therefore, wear goggles, when working
in areas where UV light is being used, in
order to avoid eye irritation!
Cyclotron Principle