Valence

Atom – the smallest unit of matter “indivisible”
WHAT ARE
THESE REGIONS
CALLED AGAIN?
Helium
atom
electron shells
a) Atomic number = number of Electrons
a) What else does it tell us?????
b) Electrons vary in the amount of energy
they possess, and they occur at certain
energy levels or electron shells.
c) Electron shells determine how an atom

behaves when it encounters other atoms
Remember
2 8 18
• the electrons of an atom that can participate
in the formation of chemical bonds with
other atoms
• THESE ARE THE OUTERMOST
ELECTRONS IN THE ATOM!!!
Determining # of Valence
Electrons
• The number of valence electrons of an
element is determined by its periodic table
group (vertical column). The number within
the unit's place identifies how many valence
electrons are present in each group.
• REMEMBER: We skip over the transition
metals because they do not follow the rules.
Let’s Practice
• Elements in Group 1 should have how many
valence electrons?
• Elements in Group 18 should have how
many valence electrons?
• What about Group 16???
Pretty Simple, huh?

Electrons are placed in shells
according to rules:
1) The 1st shell can hold up to two electrons,
and each shell thereafter can hold up to 8
electrons.
For Example: Let’s say shell 3 has 8 valence
electrons…it would be considered FULL
even though it can hold a maximum of 18
Octet Rule = atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons so
as to have 8 electrons
C would like to Gain 4 electrons
N would like to Gain 3 electrons
O would like to Gain 2 electrons
The connection between the Periodic Table and atomic structure.
Periodic Table: The group number of the group of a column for the main group
elements in the periodic table is the number of valence electrons possessed by the
neutral atom = atomic number = number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Total electrons for elements 1-18
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1H 2He = 2 core electrons
3Li 4Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 10Ne = 10 core electrons
11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si 15P 16S 17Cl 18Ar = 18 core electrons
The Duplet Rule
Duplet rule states that when an element gets 2
electrons in its valence or last shell it has achieved
a stable electronic configuration . Hydrogen seems
to be the only element obeying it
The Octet Rule
In forming compounds, atoms gain, lose, or
share electrons to give a stable electron
configuration characterized by 8 valence
electrons.
.. ..
: .. F:
F : ..
• The octet rule is the most useful in cases

involving covalent bonds to C, N, O, and F.
Example
Combine carbon (4 valence electrons) and

four fluorines (7 valence electrons each)
. ..
. C.
. F.
: ..
to write a Lewis structure for CF4.

..
.. : ..F: ..
: ..F: C : F
.. :
..
: ..F:
The octet rule is satisfied for carbon and
each fluorine.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Central Atoms Having Less than an Octet

• Relatively rare.
• Molecules with less than an octet are typical for
compounds of Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A.
• Most typical example is BF3.
• Formal charges indicate that the Lewis structure with an
incomplete octet is more important than the ones with
double bonds.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Central Atoms Having More than an Octet

• This is the largest class of exceptions.
• Atoms from the 3rd period onwards can accommodate
more than an octet.
• Beyond the third period, the d-orbitals are low enough in
energy to participate in bonding and accept the extra
electron density.
HyperChem
Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Atoms form octets

• to become more stable.
• by losing, gaining, or
sharing valence
electrons.
• by forming ionic bonds
or covalent bonds.
:
Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
16
Metals Form Positive Ions
Metals form positive ions

• by a loss of their valence electrons.
• with the electron configuration of the
nearest noble gas.
• that have fewer electrons than protons.
Group 1A metals  ion 1+

17
Formation of a Sodium Ion, Na+
Sodium achieves an octet by losing its one valence

electron.
2, 8, 1 2, 8
18
Charge of Sodium Ion, Na+
With the loss of its valence electron,

the sodium ion has a +1 charge.
Sodium atom Sodium ion

11p+ 11p+
11e- 10e-
0 1+
2,
8
19
Formation of Mg2+
Magnesium achieves an octet by losing its two valence

electrons.
2, 8, 2 2, 8
20
Charge of Magnesium Ion Mg2+
With the loss of two valence

Electrons, magnesium forms a
positive ion with a +2 charge.
Mg atom Mg2+ ion

12p+ 12p+
12e- 10e-
0 2+

21
Formation of Negative Ions
In ionic compounds, nonmetals
• achieve an octet arrangement.

• gain electrons.
• form negatively charged ions with 3-, 2-, or 1-
charges.
23
Formation of a Chloride, Cl-
Chlorine achieves an octet by adding an electron to its

valence electrons.
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
24
Charge of a Chloride Ion, Cl-
By gaining one electron, the chloride

ion has a -1 charge.
Chlorine atom Chloride ion

17p+ 17p+
17e- 18e-
0 1–

25
Ionic Charge from Group Numbers
• The charge of a positive ion is equal to its Group number.
Group 1A(1) = 1+
Group 2A(2) = 2+
Group 3A(3) = 3+
• The charge of a negative ion is obtained by subtracting 8 or

18 from its Group number.
Group 6A(16) = 6-8 = 2-
or 16 - 18 = 2-
26
Some Ionic Charges
I-

27
Size of cation < size of atom
Reasons:
(1) The number of electron shell decreases
(2) No. of protons > no. of electrons (p/e ratio increases).
The nuclear attraction is more effective to cause a
contraction in the electron cloud.
Size of anion > size of atom

Reasons:
(1) Repulsion between newly added electron(s) with other
electrons
(2) No. of protons < no. of electrons (p/e ratio decreases).
The nuclear attraction is less effective and there is an
expansion of the electron cloud.
7.5 Ionic Radii (SB p. 198)
Isoelectronic ions are ions with the same

number of electrons.
The following are examples of isoelectronic series:

1. H-, Li+, Be2+, B3+
2. N3-, O2-, F-, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+
3. P3-, S2-, Cl-, K+, Ca2+
Reason
Isoelectronic ions have the same number of
electrons. An increase in the number of protons
implies an increase in the p/e ratio which leads
to a contraction of the electron cloud.
Lewis Symbols of Atoms
• Uses symbol of element to represent nucleus and
inner electrons.
• Uses dots around the symbol to represent valence
electrons.
– Puts one electron on each side first, then pair.
• Remember that elements in the same group
have the same number of valence electrons;
therefore, their Lewis dot symbols will look
alike.
• •• •• •• ••
Li• Be• •B• •C• •N• •O: :F: :Ne:
• • • • • • ••
Lewis electron-dot symbols for elements in
Periods 2 and 3
General Rules
For a metal, the total number of dots equals the maximum

number of electrons it loses to form a cation.
For a non-metal, the number of unpaired dots equals the

number of electrons that become paired either through
electron gain or electron sharing. The number of unpaired
dots equals either the negative charge of the anion an atom
forms or the number of covalent bonds it forms.
Using Lewis Theory to Predict Chemical
Formulas Compounds
Predict the formula of the compound that forms between
calcium and chlorine.
∙ Cl ∙∙
∙∙ ∙∙
Draw the Lewis dot symbols
∙
Ca∙
of the elements.
∙∙ ∙∙
∙ Cl ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙ Cl ∙∙
∙∙ ∙∙
Transfer all the valance electrons Ca
from the metal to the nonmetal,
adding more of each atom as you
go, until all electrons are lost Ca2+
from the metal atoms and all
nonmetal atoms have 8 electrons.
CaCl2
Why are electrons important?
1) Elements have different electron
configurations
 different electron configurations mean
different levels of bonding
 When two or more atoms come together it
creates a new substance called a
COMPOUND
 This just means that the way compounds are
formed depends on how many valence
electrons an atom has
CHEMICAL BOND
- The attractive force that holds atoms together
- The result of interactions between electrons in the

combining atoms
Two types of chemical bonds

- Covalent and Ionic (electrovalent) bonds
Bonding in Chemistry
• Central theme in chemistry: Why and How atoms
attach together
• This will help us understand how to:
1. Predict the shapes of molecules.
2. Predict properties of substances.
3. Design and build molecules with particular sets of
chemical and physical properties.
Chemical Bonds
All chemical reactions involve breaking of some
bonds and formation of new ones which yield
new products with different properties.
CHEMICAL BOND
 The
Mostnature
matterand
in nature
type of isthe
found
chemical
in form
bond
of is
directly
compounds:
responsible
2 or more
for elements
many physical
held together
and
chemical
through aproperties
chemical bond.
of a substance: (e.g. melting
 point, conductivity).
Elements combine together (bond) to fill their
outer energy levels and achieve a stable structure
(low energy).
 Noble gases are un-reactive since their energy
levels are complete.
40
CHEMICAL BOND
 This
When difference
the conductivity
in
conductivity
apparatus is between
placed insalt
and
salt solution,
sugar is duethe to
bulb
the
different
will light.types of bonds
 between
But whentheirit is atoms.
placed in
 Two
sugarcommon
solution,types
the bulb
of
bonding
does not are
light.
present:
ionic & covalent.
41
Ions
43 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

What are bonds?
Elements are made up of just one type of atom, sometimes
joined to other atoms of the same element by chemical bonds.
This forms molecules such as chlorine (Cl2).
Compounds are formed when different
elements chemically react and form bonds
with each other, e.g. water (H2O).
Different types of bonds are formed depending on the types

of atoms involved:
 ionic bonding occurs between metal and non-metal atoms.
 covalent bonding occurs between non-metals atoms only.
All bonding involves changes to the number of electrons in

the outer shells of atoms.

Why do atoms form bonds?

How do atoms form ions?
An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has

an electrical charge, either positive or negative.
Atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons and

so do not have an overall charge.
Atoms with incomplete outer electron

shells are unstable. By either gaining or
losing electrons, atoms can obtain full
outer electron shells and become stable,
just like the noble gases.
When this happens, atoms have an unequal number of

protons and electrons and so have an overall charge.
This is how atoms become ions.

Positive and negative ions

Building an ion

Calculating ion charges

What is a compound ion?
Ions can be made up of a single atom or a group of atoms. An
ion made up of a group of atoms is called a compound ion.
What atoms are present in the following compound ions?
Ion Formula Charge Atoms present
hydroxide OH- -1 O H
sulfate SO42- -2 S O O O O
nitrate NO3- -1 N O O O
carbonate CO32- -2 C O O O
ammonium NH4+ +1 N H H H H

Comparing positive and negative ions

Naming ions and compound ions
There are two common types of ions: –ide ions and –ate ions.
What is the difference?
Generally, –ide ions are negatively-charged ions of an

element, e.g. sulfide (S2-), fluoride (F-), oxide (O2-).
The exception to this rule is the hydroxide ion, which contains

both hydrogen and oxygen (OH-).
–ate ions are negatively-charged compound ions

that include oxygen, e.g. sulfate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3-),
carbonate (CO32-).

Ionic Bonding
 The force of attraction between a positive
charge and negative charge creates the
ionic bond.
 Ex: Wants to be neutral…Sodium ion

(Na+) has a +1 charge and Chloride ion
(Cl-) has a -1 charge.
 Sodium Chloride…table salt
IONIC bond -
electrons are lost or gained,
resulting in the formation of IONS
in ionic compounds.
K F
K F
K F
K F
K F
K F
K F
+
_
K F
Ionic Compound Names
 The cation ion goes first, then the anion
 Remember when naming an Anion – (atom

that gains electrons) it will end in ide
 Example: NaCl
Sodium Chloride
 MgO
Magnesium Oxide
+
_
K F
The compound potassium fluoride
consists of potassium (K+) ions
and fluoride (F-) ions
+
_
K F
The ionic bond is the attraction
between the positive K+ ion
and the negative F- ion
Depicting Ion Formation
PROBLEM: Use partial orbital diagrams and Lewis symbols to depict the
formation of Na+ and O2- ions from the atoms, and determine
the formula of the compound.
PLAN: Draw orbital diagrams for the atoms and then move electrons to
make filled outer levels. It can be seen that two sodiums are
needed for each oxygen.
SOLUTION:
Na O2-
2s 2p
3s 3p O
2s 2p 2 Na+
Na
Na
.
.
:
3s 3p + : O: 2Na+ + :O: 2-
:
.
Na.
9-66
Figure 9.4
Three ways to represent the formation of Li+ and F-
through electron transfer
1. Electron configurations
Li 1s22s1 + F 1s22s22p5 Li+ 1s2 + F- 1s22s22p6
2. Orbital diagrams
Li+
Li
1s 2s 2p
1s 2s 2p
+ F + F-
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
3. Lewis electron-dot symbols

.
:
Li . + :F: Li+ + : F: -
:
:
9-67
Oppositely charged particles (ions)
attract and form neutral compounds.
The sum of the charges on the ions

together is always zero.
Ionic bonds are the strong non-directional

electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely
charged ions.
Group 1 Group 17
elements elements
(alkali (halogens)
metals) bonds
bond easily.
easily.
Ionic Bonds
• Metal to nonmetal.
• Metal loses electrons to form cation.
• Nonmetal gains electrons to form anion.
• The electronegativity between the metal and the
nonmetal must be > than 2.
• Ionic bond results from + to − attraction.
– Larger charge = stronger attraction.
– Smaller ion = stronger attraction.
• Lewis theory allows us to predict the correct
formulas of ionic compounds.
Conditions Needed for Ionic Bond
Formation
1. Chemical Bonding occurs only if it results in a
decrease in PE
– i.e. The process is exothermic
2. Cation formation is Endothermic (PE
increases)....Why?
– Relate to Ionization Energy
3. Anion formation is Exothermic (PE
decreases)......Why?
– Relate to Electron Affinity
Conditions Needed
for Ionic Bond Formation
1. Cation formation is usually more
endothermic than Anion formation is
exothermic
– Why then is Ionic Bond formation
EXOTHERMIC?
Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding involves 3 steps (3 energies)
1) loss of an electron(s) by one element,
2) gain of electron(s) by a second element,
3) attraction between positive and negative
Ionization energy
Na e– + Na+ + 496
Electron affinity
Cl + e– Cl– – 349
Lattice energy
Cl– + Na+ Cl– Na+ – 766
• Problem: the sum is +147. A spontaneous
change must involve a net lowering of energy
• Solution: the lattice energy provides the
energy needed
• Note that although we represent this as a
three step process it actual occurs all at once
Must Consider Lattice Energy
1. Lattice Energy
– PE lowering due to the attraction of anions to
cations
– Highly Exothermic
2. Ionic bonding will only result when......
– Lattice Energy is more exothermic than
E. A. + I.E. is endothermic
E.g Li (s) + ½ F2 (g)  LiF (s)
• Lattice energy = the energy required to
completely separate one mole of a solid ionic
compound into gaseous ions
- + - + -
+
- + - + - +
- + + -
NaCl(s)  Na+(g) + Cl(g) Hlattice = +788 kJ/mol
Because they are defined as an amount of energy,

lattice energies are always positive.
Copyright McGraw-Hill 2009 76
• Coulombic attraction:
Q1  Q2 Q = amount of charge
F
d2 d = distance of separation
Q1 Q2
 
d
• Lattice energy (like a coulombic force) depends on

• Magnitude of charges
• Distance between the charges

Lattice energies of alkali metal iodides

The ionic radii sums for LiF and MgO are 2.01 and 2.06 Å,
respectively, yet their lattice energies are 1030 and 3795 kJ/mol.
Why is the lattice energy of MgO nearly four times that of LiF?

Bond formation
• Whenever a new bond forms, energy is
released. The stronger the bond, the more
energy that is released.
• For ionic bonds, this energy is called lattice
energy.
• Higher lattice energy values correspond to
stronger bonds.
• The amount of energy released when a bond
forms is identical to the amount of energy
required to break the bond.
Predicting lattice energy
• Two factors will determine the lattice
energy for ionic compounds.
– Bigger charges produce higher lattice energies
(2+ and 2- produce stronger bonds than 1+ and
1-)
– Fewer energy levels result in greater lattice
energies (LiF will have a greater lattice energy
than NaCl)
– Charge is by far the bigger factor and should
always be compared first!!!
Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy
Lattice energy is affected by ionic size and ionic charge.
As ionic size increases, lattice energy decreases.

Lattice energy therefore decreases down a group on
the periodic table.
As ionic charge increases, lattice energy increases.
Which compound will have the greatest lattice
energy, MgS or LiF?
• Magnitude of charge is the first thing we

should look at.
– magnesium (2+ charge), sulfide (2- charge)
– lithium (1+ charge), fluoride (1- charge)
– MgS has the greater individual charges, so MgS

has the greater lattice energy.
Which compound will have a lower melting
point, Na2S or BeO?
• A lower melting point means we need to

select the compound with the lower lattice
energy. We check the charges first.
– sodium (1+), sulfide (2-)
– beryllium (2+), oxide (2-)
– sodium sulfide has smaller individual charges,

so it has the lower melting point.
Which compound has harder crystals, CaCl2
or MgCl2?
• Harder crystals require a higher lattice

energy. First, check the charges.
– calcium (2+), chloride (1-)
– magnesium (2+), chloride (1-)
– the charges are the same, so we need to see
which ions have fewer energy levels.
Which compound has harder crystals, CaCl2
or MgCl2?
– the charges are the same, so we need to see which
ions have fewer energy levels.
– calcium (4), chloride (3)
– magnesium (3), chloride (3)
– fewer energy levels give MgCl2 the higher lattice
energy and therefore, the harder crystals.
Which compound has the lower
boiling point, AgNO3 or K2SO4?
• Lower boiling point means a lower lattice
energy.
– silver (1+), nitrate (1-)
– potassium (1+), sulfate (2-)
– Charges indicate a lower lattice energy for
AgNO3. Lower lattice energy means a lower
boiling point.
- L.E cannot be determined directly
- experimental data is used
- enthalpy cycle (Hess’s Law) links the data.
- enthalpy cycle is based on the formation of the

compound from its elements in their standard states.
- L.E cannot be determined directly
experimental data is used
enthalpy cycle (Hess’s Law) links the data.

Born-Haber Cycle
• A series of hypothetical steps and their
enthalpy changes needed to convert
elements to an ionic compound and devised
to calculate the lattice energy.
• Using Hess’s law as a means to calculate
the formation of ionic compounds
Born-Haber Cycle Steps
1. Elements (standard state) converted into
gaseous atoms
2. Losing or gaining electrons to form cations
and anions
3. Combining gaseous anions and cations to
form a solid ionic compound
Step 1: Atomisation
• The standard enthalpy change of
atomisation is the ΔH required to
produce one mole of gaseous atoms
• Na(s)  Na(g) ΔHoat = +109 kJmol-1
• NOTE: for diatomic gaseous elements,
Cl2, ΔHoat is equal to half the bond energy
(enthalpy)
• Cl2(g)  Cl(g) ΔHoat = ½ E (Cl-Cl)
ΔHoat = ½ (+242 )
ΔHoat = +121 kJmol-1
Step 2: Formation of gaseous ions
• Electron Affinity
– Enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous
atoms or anions gains electrons to form a mole
of negatively charged gaseous ions.
• Cl(g) + e-  Cl-(g) ΔHo = -364 kJmol-1
– For most atoms = exothermic, but gaining a 2nd
electron is endothermic due to the repulsion
between the anion and the electron
Becoming cations
• Ionisation energy
– Enthalpy change for one mole of a gaseous
element or cation to lose electrons to form a
mole of positively charged gaseous ions
• Na(g)  Na+(g) + e- IE1= +494 kJmol-1
Lattice Enthalpy
• Energy required to convert one mole of the
solid compound into gaseous ions.
• NaCl (s)  Na+(g) + Cl-(g) ΔHolat
= +771kJmol-1
• It is highly endothermic
• We cannot directly calculate ΔHolat , but
values are obtained indirectly through
Hess’s law for the formation of the ionic
compound
Calculations
• Calculate the lattice energy of NaCl(s)
using the following: (kJmol-1)
– Enthalpy of formation of NaCl = - 411
– Enthalpy of atomisation of Na = +109
– Enthalpy of atomisation of Cl = +121
– Electron affinity of Cl = - 364
– Ionisation energy of Na = + 494
• Enthalpy of atomisation + electron

affinity + ionisation = enthalpy of
formation + lattice energy
Magnitude of Lattice enthalpy
• The greater the charge on the ions, the
greater the electrostatic attraction and hence
the greater the lattice enthalpy
• Ex: Mg2+ > Na+
• The larger the ions, then the greater the
separation of the charges and the lower the
lattice enthalpy
• VICE VERSA
Trends
ΔHolat Change from NaCl
MgO 3889 Increased ionic charge
NaCl 771 ------
KBr 670 Larger ions

Use of Born-Haber Cycles
• Empirical value of ΔHolat is found using
Born-Haber cycle.
• Theoretical value of ΔHolat can be found by
summing the electrostatic attractive and
repulsive forces between the ions in the
crystal lattice.
Compound Empirical value Theoretical
value
NaCl 771 766
KBr 670 667
KI 632 631
AgCl 905 770

Agreement
• Usually there is good agreement
between empirical and theoretical
values
• If there isn’t good agreement
– Implying that the description of the
compound as ionic is inappropriate
– There could be a significant degree of
covalent character in the bonding (EN
difference less than 1.7)
– Presence of covalent character leads to an
increase in ΔHo
Born-HaberofCycle
Construction a Using the ‘FAIL’ technique
eg for sodium chloride:

F = formation
NB: Hθ f = formation Hθat = atomisation

A = atomisation
HθIE = ionisation HθEA = electron affinity

I = ionisation
HθLE = lattice enthalpy

L = lattice enthalpy
Na+ (g) + e- + Cl- (g)
Hθ1st IE Na HθEA Cl
IONISATION LATTICE
H θ
NaCl LE
Na (g) + Cl (g) ENTHALPY
Hθat Na Hθat Cl
ATOMISATION H NaCl θ
f
FORMATION
Na (s) + ½ Cl (g) 2 NaCl (s)
Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size
• The force of attraction between charged particles is inversely

proportional to the distance between them.
• Larger ions mean the center of positive charge (nucleus of the

cation) is farther away from the negative charge (electrons of
the anion).
– Larger ion = weaker attraction
– Weaker attraction = smaller lattice energy
Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size
• The force of attraction between charged particles is inversely

proportional to the distance between them.
• Larger ions mean the center of positive charge (nucleus of the

cation) is farther away from the negative charge (electrons of
the anion).
– Larger ion = weaker attraction
– Weaker attraction = smaller lattice energy
Lattice Energy versus Ion Size
Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion
Charge
• The force of attraction between oppositely
charged particles is directly proportional to
the product of the charges.
• Larger charge means the ions are more

strongly attracted.
– Larger charge = stronger attraction
– Stronger attraction = larger lattice
energy
• Of the two factors, ion charge is generally

more important.
Ionic Bonding Model versus Reality
• Lewis theory implies that the attractions between ions are strong.
• Lewis theory predicts ionic compounds should have high melting

points and boiling points because breaking down the crystal
should require a lot of energy.
– The stronger the attraction (larger the lattice energy), the
higher the melting point.
• Ionic compounds have high melting points and boiling points.

– MP generally > 300 °C
– All ionic compounds are solids at room temperature.
Properties of Ionic Compounds
• Hard and brittle crystalline solids

– All are solids at room temperature
• Melting points generally > 300 C
• The liquid state conducts electricity
– The solid state does not conduct electricity
• Many are soluble in water
– The solution conducts electricity well
Properties of Ionic Compounds
Image at top of page 390

• Lewis theory implies that the positions of the ions in the crystal
lattice are critical to the stability of the structure.
• Lewis theory predicts that moving ions out of position should

therefore be difficult, and ionic solids should be hard.
– Hardness is measured by rubbing two materials together and
seeing which “streaks” or cuts the other.
– The harder material is the one that cuts or doesn’t streak.
• Ionic solids are relatively hard.

– Compared to most molecular solids
• Lewis theory implies that if the ions are displaced from their
position in the crystal lattice, repulsive forces should occur.
• This predicts the crystal will become unstable and break apart.
Lewis theory predicts ionic solids will be brittle.
• Ionic solids are brittle. When struck they shatter.

• To conduct electricity, a material must have charged particles

that are able to flow through the material.
• Lewis theory implies that, in the ionic solid, the ions are locked
in position and cannot move around.
• Lewis theory predicts that ionic solids should not conduct

electricity.
• Ionic solids do not conduct electricity.

• Lewis theory implies that, in the liquid state or when dissolved
in water, the ions will have the ability to move around.
• Lewis theory predicts that both a liquid ionic compound and an

ionic compound dissolved in water should conduct electricity.
• Ionic compounds conduct electricity in the liquid state or when

dissolved in water.
Energy changes in solutions
Why do some ionic substances dissolve in
water, whilst others are insoluble?
• If there is enough energy to separate the ions

in the lattice, the substance will be soluble
Ions in solid
lattice Ions in solution
Lattice enthalpy, HLE
• The enthalpy change when 1 mole of solid
is formed from the separate ions
-HLE is a positive
• This is always an exothermic
valueprocess
• HLE is always negative
• The energy to break up a lattice = - HLE

Which will give more negative HLE?

• Small ionic charge

• Large ionic charge

• Small ionic radius

• Large ionic radius
Where does the energy come from to
break up the lattice?
• Hydration
3+ 3-
Enthalpy of hydration,Hhyd
• Hhyd is the enthalpy change when a
solution of ions is made from 1 mole of
gaseous ions
Exothermic –
because bonds
Is hydration are made
exothermic or
endothermic?
Example of hydration
• Na+ (g) + aq Na+ (aq)
• Hhyd = - 406 kJ mol-1

Different ions
• An ionic compound contains cations and
anions
• Total Hhyd = Hhyd (cation) + Hhyd (anion)
• When NaCl is dissolved:
• Total Hhyd = Hhyd (Na+) + Hhyd (Cl-)

Which will give more negative Hhyd?

• Small ionic charge

• Large ionic charge

• Small ionic radius

• Large ionic radius
Water is not the only solvent
• Enthalpy of solvation, Hsolv , is used for other

solvents
Enthalpy change of solution
• This is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a
solute dissolves to form an infinitely dilute
solution
• Hsolution = Hhyd (cation) + Hhyd (anion) - HLE
• If Hsolution is negative, it is more likely that the

substance will dissolve
What decides solubility?
• Energy is put in to separate the ions in the
lattice [ - HLE]
• Energy is released by hydration of the ions

[Hhyd (cation) + Hhyd (anion)]
• If more energy is released than used up,

then Hsolution will be negative and the solute
is more likely to dissolve.
Enthalpy cycle for solution
Ionic lattice + solvent Hsolution solution
- HLE Hhyd (cation)

+ Hhyd (anion)
Gaseous ions + solvent
Hsolution = Hhyd (cation) + Hhyd (anion) - HLE

Enthalpy level diagrams
• Make it easier to compare the sizes
of the enthalpy changes
e Gaseous ions
Is ΔHsolution
nEndothermic or
t exothermic ? -ΔHLE ΔHhyd(cat)
h
ΔHhyd(an)
a Solute + solvent
l
ΔH
solution
p Solution
y
ΔHsolution = -ΔHLE + ΔHhyd(cat) + ΔHhyd(an)
e Gaseous ions
n ΔHhyd(cat)
t -ΔHLE ΔHhyd(an)
h Solution
a ΔHsolution Is ΔHsolution
l Solute + solvent
exothermic or
endothermic?
p
y
ΔHsolution = -ΔHLE + ΔHhyd(cat) + ΔHhyd(an)
Solubility
• The more negative the value for ΔHsolution
the more likely the solute is to dissolve.
• If ΔHsolution is very large and positive, the

solute will not dissolve.
• If ΔHsolution is small and positive, the solute

may dissolve, if there is sufficient increase
in entropy.
IONIC BONDING & STRUCTURE
• Charge Neutrality:
--Net charge in the
structure should
be zero.
--General form:
• Stable structures:
--maximize the # of nearest oppositely charged neighbors.
Adapted from Fig. 12.1,

Callister 6e.
15
COORDINATION # AND IONIC
•
RADII
Coordination # increases with
Issue: How many anions can you
arrange around a cation?

Callister 6e.

Callister 6e.

Adapted from Table Callister 6e.
12.2, Callister 6e.
16
IONIC BONDING &
• Charge Neutrality:
--Net charge in STRUCTURE
the
structure should
be zero.
--General form:
• Stable structures:
--maximize the # of nearest oppositely charged neighbors.

Callister 6e.
15
COORDINATION # AND
• Coordination # increases with
IONIC RADII
Issue: How many anions can you
arrange around a cation?

Callister 6e.

Callister 6e.

Adapted from Table Callister 6e.
12.2, Callister 6e.
16
In covalent bonding,
atoms still want to achieve
a noble gas configuration
(the octet rule).
But rather than losing or gaining
electrons,
atoms now share an electron pair.
The shared electron pair

is called a bonding pair
• Definition Covalent Bonds
- chemical bond in which two atoms share a pair of
valence electrons
- can be a single, double, or triple bond
single, 2e-’s (-); double, 4e-’s (=); triple, 6e-’s( )
- always formed between nonmetals
- mostly low melting/boiling points
• 2 types of bonds
- polar
- non polar
Covalent Bond Cont.
• Non Polar
- bonded atoms that share e-’s equally
- same atoms bonded
ex. Cl – Cl: Cl2
• Polar
- bonded atoms that do not share e-’s
equally
- different atoms bonded
Chlorine
forms
covalent
a Cl2
bond
with
itself
How
will
Cl Cl two
chlorine
atoms
react?
Cl Cl
Each chlorine atom wants to
gain one electron to achieve an octet
Cl Cl
Neither atom will give up an electron –
chlorine is highly electronegative.
What’s the solution – what can they
do to achieve an octet?
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
octet
Cl Cl
octet
circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets
Cl Cl
The octet is achieved by
each atom sharing the
electron pair in the middle
their octets
Cl Cl
The octet is achieved by
each atom sharing the
electron pair in the middle
their octets
Cl Cl
This is the bonding pair

their octets
Cl Cl
It is a single bonding pair

their octets
Cl Cl
It is called a SINGLE BOND

their octets
Cl Cl
Single bonds are abbreviated
with a dash

their octets
Cl Cl
This is the chlorine molecule,
Cl2
their octets
O2
Oxygen is also one of the diatomic molecules
O O
How will two oxygen atoms bond?
O O
Each atom has two unpaired electrons
O O
O O
O O
O O
O O
O O
O O
Oxygen atoms are highly electronegative.
So both atoms want to gain two electrons.
O O
Oxygen atoms are highly electronegative.
So both atoms want to gain two electrons.
O O
O O
O O
O O
O O
Both electron pairs are shared.
O O
6 valence electrons
plus 2 shared electrons
= full octet
O O
6 valence electrons
plus 2 shared electrons
= full octet
O O
two bonding pairs,
making a double bond
O O O =O
For convenience, the double bond
can be shown as two dashes.
Multiple bonds are a feature
• O2 and N2 do not achieve octets by sharing
two
• Must share more electrons
• O2 has double bond
• N2 has triple bond – one of the strongest in
chemistry
– N2 is very stable and unreactive – also the
major product from explosives
Bond order increases as electron total
decreases
Molecule Group Total number Bond
number of electrons order
F-F 7 14 1
O=O 6 12 2
N≡N 5 10 3
Properties of covalent compounds
• Gases, liquids and solids at room
temperature
• May be hard or soft (diamond is a covalent
solid)
• Dissolve in polar and non-polar solvents,
depending on molecule’s polarity
• Solutions and melts do not conduct
electricity
• Most covalent compounds are molecular
Carbon dioxide, CO2 Total Number of valence electrons = 4 + (2 x 6) = 16
O + C + O O C O = O C O
Double bonds
Rules for Drawing Lewis Structures
• First sum the number of valence electrons from each atom
• The central atom is usually written first in the formula
• Complete the octets of atoms bonded to the central atom
(remember that H can only have two electrons)
• Place any left over electrons on the central atom, even if doing so it
results in more than an octet
• If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet ,
try multiple bonds
E.g. 1. PCl3 Total Number of valence electrons = 5 + (3 x 7) = 26
Cl P Cl Cl P Cl Cl P Cl
Cl Cl
Cl
E.g. 2; CHBr3
Total Number of valence electrons = 4 + 1 + (3 x 7) = 26
Br
Br C H
Br
Exceptions to the Octet Rule in Covalent Bonding
1. Molecules with an odd number of electrons

2. Other Natural Radicals, which do not obey Lewis Structures
(e.g. O2)
2. Molecules in which an atom has less than an octet
3. Molecules in which an atom has more than an octet
1. Odd Number of Electrons
NO Number of valence electrons = 11
N O Resonace Arrows
N O
Resonance occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be
written for a particular molecule (i.e. rearrange electrons)
NO2
Number of valence electrons = 17
O N O O N O O N O
Molecules and atoms which are neutral (contain no formal charge) and with an
unpaired electron are called Radicals
O2 O O O O
Oxygen is a ground state
"diradical"
2. Less than an Octet
Includes Lewis acids such as halides of B, Al and compounds of Be
BCl3 Cl
Group 3A atom only has six electrons around it
B
Cl Cl
However, Lewis acids “accept” a pair of electrons readily from
Lewis bases to establish a stable octet
Cl H Cl H
_ +
Cl Al + N H Cl Al N H
Cl H Cl H
Lewis acid Lewis base salt
AlX3
Aluminium chloride is an ionic solid in which Al3+ is surrounded by six Cl-.

However, it sublimes at 192 °C to vapour Al2Cl6 molecules
Cl Cl Cl
Al Al
Cl Cl Cl
B2H6
A Lewis structure cannot be written for diborane.
This is explained by a three-centre bond – single electron is
delocalized over a B-H-B
H H H
B B
H H H
3. More than an Octet
Elements from the third Period and beyond, have ns, np and unfilled
nd orbitals which can be used in bonding
PCl5 P : (Ne) 3s2 3p3 3d0

Number of valence electrons = 5 + (5 x 7) = 40 Cl
10 electrons around the phosphorus
Cl
Cl P
Cl
SF4 Cl
S : (Ne) 3s2 3p4 3d0
Number of valence electrons = 6 + (4 x 7) = 34
F F
S
The Larger the central atom, the more atoms you F F
can bond to it – usually small atoms such as F, Cl
and O allow central atoms such as P and S to
expand their valency.
The attractive and repulsive
forces in covalent bonding
Bond length and covalent radius
internuclear distance covalent internuclear distance covalent

(bond length) radius (bond length) radius
internuclear distance covalent internuclear distance covalent

(bond length) radius (bond length) radius
9-
Factors which Influence the Formation
of Covalent Bonds
1. Electron Affinity. A covalent bond is generally favoured

between the two atoms if both the atoms have high electron
affinity.
2. Ionisation Energy. Ionisation energy of both the atoms

participating in bonding should be high.
3. Atomic Size. Atomic size of the atoms forming covalent bond

should be smaller. Smaller the atomic radii of atoms, more stronger
the covalent bond will be. For example, H-H bond is more stronger
than Cl-Cl bond which in tum is more stronger than Br-Br bond.
4. Electronegativity. The electronegativities of both then atoms

should be high. The difference of electronegativities between the
two atoms should be minimum.
9-
Characteristics of covalent compounds
(i) These exist as gases or liquids under the normal conditions of
temperature and pressure. Some covalent compounds exist as soft
solids.
(ii) Diamond, Carborandum (SiC), Silica (SiO2), AlN etc. have giant three
dimensional network structures; therefore have exceptionally high melting
points otherwise these compounds have relatively low melting and boiling
points.
(iii) In general covalent substances are bad conductor of electricity. Polar

covalent compounds like HClin solution conduct electricity. Graphite can
conduct electricity in solid state since electrons can pass from one layer to
the other.
(iv) These compounds are generally insoluble in polar solvent like water but
soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene etc. some covalent compounds
like alcohol, dissolve in water due to hydrogen bonding.
9-
(v) The covalent bond is rigid and directional. These compounds, thus
show isomerism (structural and space).
(vi) Covalent substances show molecular reactions. The reaction rates

are usually low.
• (vii) The number of electrons contributed by an atom of the element

for sharing with other atoms is called covalency of the element.
Covalency = 8 – [Number of the group to which element belongs].
The variable covalency of an element is equal to the total number of
unpaired electrons in s, p and d-orbitals of its valency shell.
• The element such as P, S, Cl, Br, I have vacant d-orbitals in their
valency shell. These elements show variable covalency by
increasing the number of unpaired electrons under excited
conditions. The electrons from paired orbitals get excited to vacant
9- d-orbitals of the same shell.
Coordinate Covalent Bonds
Coordinate covalent bond: The covalent
bond that forms when both electrons are
donated by the same atom.
Prentice Hall © 2007 Chapter Five 191

9-
Partial Ionic Character of Polar Covalent Bonds
Related directly to the electronegativity difference

(∆EN) between
the bonded atoms
The greater the ∆EN, the larger the partial charges

and the higher the partial ionic character (PIC).
Thus LiF has more PIC than HF;

HF has more PIC than F2.
Gradations in bond type among Period 3
(black type) and Group 4A (red type) elements.
3.0
2.0
EN
Boundary ranges for

classifying the ionic
character of chemical
bonds
0.
0
Ionic-To-Covalent Bonding Continuum Across a Period
Consider bonding between a metal and non-metal in Period 3
NaCl, MgCl2, AlCl3, SiCl4, PCl3, S2Cl2, and Cl2

Increasing covalent character (decreasing ionic character)
from NaCl to Cl2
Underlying factor: As ∆EN becomes smaller, the bond

becomes more covalent.
Properties of the Period 3 chlorides
EN difference Bond Type
Non-polar
0 – 0.3
(covalent)
0.3 – 1.7 Polar (covalent)
1.7 + Ionic
Electronegativity values for elements are listed in tables

In many cases, the type of bond formed may be
predicted based on the periodic table:
● Metal/metal bond – metallic
● Metal/non-metal bond – usually ionic
● Non-metal/non-metal – covalent
● element bonded to itself – non-polar
● element bonded to an atom adjacent on the Periodic
Table – probably non-polar (covalent)

● element bonded to an atom two or more spaces apart
on PT – probably polar (covalent)

Ionic Compound Differences Covalent Compound
Ions Particles Molecules
Lost or gained Electron Shared
Strong electrostatics Forces Strong (Covalent bond)
forces (Ionic bond) between the atoms in the
between the molecule. Weak forces of
oppositely-charged attraction between the
ions arranged in a 3-D molecules (van der Waals’
giant crystal lattice forces)
Solid State Gases or volatile liquids
High Melting point Low (Simple molecules)High
(Giant molecules)
High Melting point Low (Simple molecules)High
(Giant molecules)
Non-volatile Volatility Very volatile (Simple
molecules)Non-volatile
(Giant molecules)
Dissolve in water and Solubility in Do not dissolve in water
polar solvents water
Do not dissolve in Solubility in Dissolve in organic solvent
organic solvent organic solvent (ether, alcohol, benzene,
tetrachloromethane and
propanone)
Conduct electricity in Electricity Cannot conduct electricity in
liquid and aqueous conductor any state (no free mobile
solution (positive and ions)
negative ions can move
freely). Cannot conduct
electricity in solid state
(fixed position and
cannot move freely).
AN INTRODUCTION TO
FAJAN’S RULES
INTRODUCTION
Observations Not all ionic compounds have high melting points.
Some covalently bonded compounds have higher than

expected boiling points due to dipoles in their structure
Reason in many substances the bonding is not 100% ionic or covalent
Ideal ionic
compound completely separate, spherical ions
electron densities are apart from each other
However, if the positive ion has a high charge density it can distort the negative ion by
attracting the outer shell electrons to give an area of electron density between the two
species ... a bit like a covalent bond
INTRODUCTION
The feasibility of having some covalent character can be predicted using Fajan’s Rules.
A compound is more likely to be covalent if the ...
CATION SMALL SIZE it is “highly polarising” and attracts electrons in the anion
HIGH CHARGE
ANION LARGE SIZE it is “highly polarisable” and will be easily distorted

HIGH CHARGE
N.B. Just because a substance is less likely to be covalent according to

Fajan’s Rules doesn’t mean it will be ionic; it will remain covalent but
have some ionic character (or vice versa).
EXTREMES OF CHEMICAL BONDING
IONIC BONDING
• 3-DIMENSIONAL GIANT IONIC LATTICE
• ALTERNATE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IONS
• HIGH MELTING POINT
• SOLUBLE IN WATER
• MOLTEN STATE CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY
ELECTRON DENSITY IS SEPARATED AND AROUND EACH SPECIES
The ideal ionic compound has completely separate, spherical ions

and the electron densities are apart from each other.
CONTENTS
EXTREMES OF CHEMICAL BONDING
COVALENT BONDING
• MOLECULAR (SIMPLE OR MACRO)
• SIMPLE MOLECULES HAVE LOW MELTING PTS - WEAK INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
• USUALLY INSOLUBLE IN WATER BUT SOME ARE HYDROLYSED
• MOLECULES DON’T CONDUCT ELECTRICITY IN THE MOLTEN STATE
ELECTRON DENSITY IS BETWEEN EACH SPECIES
H H H:H
The ideal covalent compound has the electron

density exactly in between the species
BLACK AND WHITE OR SHADES OF GRAY?
POLAR COVALENT BONDS

• IN MANY MOLECULES THERE ARE POLAR COVALENT BONDS
• MOLECULES TEND TO HAVE HIGHER MELTING/BOILING POINTS FOR THEIR MASS
• DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTION OR HYDROGEN BONDING ARE PRESENT
d+ d-
H : Cl H Cl
In some covalent compounds, the electron density
isn’t exactly in the centre between the species
• HYDROGEN CHLORIDE HAS SOME ‘IONIC CHARACTER’ - CHARGE SEPARATION

• HYDROGEN CHLORIDE REACTS WITH WATER
BLACK AND WHITE OR SHADES OF GRAY?
IONIC COMPOUNDS WHICH ‘MISBEHAVE’

• LITHIUM CHLORIDE SHOULD BEHAVE LIKE A TYPICAL GROUP I CHLORIDE
• IT IS HYDROLYSED BY WATER AND HAS A ‘LOW’ MELTING POINT
THE POSITIVE ION ATTRACTS THE

OUTER SHELL ELECTRONS OF THE
NEGATIVE ION AND DISTORTS THE
SPHERICAL IONIC SHAPE...
THERE IS NOW SOME ELECTRON
DENSITY BETWEEN THE SPECIES
SMALL CATION LARGE ANION

HIGH CHARGE DENSITY ELECTRONS FAR FROM NUCLEUS
HIGHLY POLARISING HIGHLY POLARISABLE
FAJAN’S RULES
A COMPOUND IS MORE LIKELY TO HAVE

SOME COVALENT CHARACTER IF...
• THE CATION IS SMALL AND/OR HAS A HIGH CHARGE - HIGHLY POLARISING
• THE ANION IS LARGE AND/OR HAS A HIGH CHARGE - HIGHLY POLARISABLE
MORE COVALENT
MORE COVALENT
CHARACTER
CHARACTER
FAJAN’S RULES
PROOF
Chlorides can be used to demonstrate changes in bond type as the positive charge
density increases due to higher charge (across Period 3) or larger size (down Group 1)
‘charge’ ionic rad. m.pt./°C solubility bonding
GREATER POSITIVE
CHARGE DENSITY
Period 3 NaCl 1+ 0.095nm 808 soluble ionic
MgCl2 2+ 0.065nm 714 soluble ionic
AlCl3 3+ 0.050nm 180 hydrolysed covalent
SiCl4 4+ 0.041nm -70 hydrolysed covalent
GREATER POSITIVE
CHARGE DENSITY
Group 1 LiCl 1+ 0.060nm soluble cov. character

NaCl 1+ 0.095nm soluble ionic
KCl 1+ 0.133nm soluble ionic
RbCl 1+ 0.148nm soluble ionic
1.Covalent character increases withdecreasing cation sizeorincreasing
cation charge.The high charge density of small and/or highly charged
cations is able to exert a powerfulpolarizing effect which distorts the electron
cloud around the anion. Compare NaCl (mp800°C) with CaCl2(mp 772°C;
charge effect) and KI (mp 686°C) with LiI (mp 449°C;size effect).
2.Covalent character increases with anincrease in anion charge or anion
size. Theelectrons of larger, more negatively charged anions are more
loosely held because theyare more shielded from the nuclear charge. Thus,
these anions are more easily polarizedby cations. Compare LiBr with Li3P
(charge effect), and LiF (mp 845°C) with LiI (mp449°C; size effect).
3. Covalent character is greater for cations with anon-noble gas electron
configuration(i.e., 18-electron, pseudo-noble-gas cations) than for cations
with a true noble-gasconfiguration (8-electron cations). This effect mostly
shows up in transition-metal andpost-transition metal cations in which one or
mored-electrons ineffectively shield the outer electrons, or the electrons of an
adjacent ion, from the nuclear charge. Thus, for twoions of similar size and
charge, a transition metal ion with a (n-1)dxns0configuration willbe more
polarizing and more polarizable than an alkali or alkaline earth metal with
anoble gas configuration, (n-1)s2(n-1)p6ns0. Compare CuCl (mp 430°C,
Cu+is 3d104s0, r= 0.91 Å) with NaCl (mp 800°C, Na+, 2s22p6, r = 1.16 Å)
and HgCl2(mp 276°C, Hg2+is4f143d10, r = 116 Å) with CaCl2(mp 782°C,
Ca2+is 3s23p6, r = 114 Å).
Formal Atom Charges
• Atoms in molecules often bear a charge (+ or -).
Formal charge = Group no.

- 1/2 (no. bond electrons)
- (no. of LP electrons)
• The most important dominant resonance structure

of a molecule is the one with formal charges
as close to 0 as possible.
18, 20 Oct 97 Bonding and Structure 213

Carbon Dioxide, CO2
At OXYGEN 6 - (1/ 2)(4) - 4 = 0
• • • •
• •
• O C O •
At CARBON 4 - (1/ 2)(8) - 0 = 0

Carbon Dioxide, CO2 (2)
An alternate Lewis structure is:
6 - (1/ 2)(2) - 6 = -1
•
+ • •
•
• O C O •
• • C atom
charge is 0.
6 - (1/ 2)(6) - 2 = +1
•
• • +•
AND the corresponding
resonance form
• O
• •
C O •

NH4+
H
H—N—H
H
F.C. on H = 1 – (2 × ½) – 0 = 0
F.C. on N = 5 – (8 × ½) – 0 = +1
(CO)
CO
F.C. of C = 4 – (6 × ½) – 2 = –1
F.C. of O = 6 – (6 × ½) – 2 = +1
9-
(NO3)–
–
O=N—O
O
F.C. of O–1  6 – (4 x ½) – 4 = 0
F.C. of O–2  6 – (2 x ½) – 6 = –1
F.C. of O–3  6 – (2 x ½) – 6 = –1
F.C. of N  5 – (8 x ½) – 0 = +1
9-

Valence

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Valence

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Atom – the smallest unit of matter “indivisible”

c) Electron shells determine how an atom

Pretty Simple, huh?

Total electrons for elements 1-18

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

1H 2He = 2 core electrons

3Li 4Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 10Ne = 10 core electrons

• The octet rule is the most useful in cases

Combine carbon (4 valence electrons) and

to write a Lewis structure for CF4.

Central Atoms Having Less than an Octet

Central Atoms Having More than an Octet

Atoms form octets

Metals form positive ions

Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Sodium achieves an octet by losing its one valence

With the loss of its valence electron,

Sodium atom Sodium ion

Magnesium achieves an octet by losing its two valence

With the loss of two valence

Mg atom Mg2+ ion

Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

In ionic compounds, nonmetals

• achieve an octet arrangement.

Chlorine achieves an octet by adding an electron to its

By gaining one electron, the chloride

Chlorine atom Chloride ion

Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• The charge of a negative ion is obtained by subtracting 8 or

Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Size of anion > size of atom

Isoelectronic ions are ions with the same

The following are examples of isoelectronic series:

For a metal, the total number of dots equals the maximum

For a non-metal, the number of unpaired dots equals the

- The attractive force that holds atoms together

- The result of interactions between electrons in the

Two types of chemical bonds

43 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

Different types of bonds are formed depending on the types

All bonding involves changes to the number of electrons in

45 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

46 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has

Atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons and

Atoms with incomplete outer electron

When this happens, atoms have an unequal number of

47 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

48 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

49 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

50 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

51 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

52 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

Generally, –ide ions are negatively-charged ions of an

The exception to this rule is the hydroxide ion, which contains

–ate ions are negatively-charged compound ions

53 of 11 © Boardworks Ltd 2012

 Ex: Wants to be neutral…Sodium ion

 Remember when naming an Anion – (atom

Li 1s22s1 + F 1s22s22p5 Li+ 1s2 + F- 1s22s22p6

3. Lewis electron-dot symbols

The sum of the charges on the ions

Ionic bonds are the strong non-directional

NaCl(s)  Na+(g) + Cl(g) Hlattice = +788 kJ/mol