EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

(Psikologi Pendidikan)

PPET 2104
THEORIES OF LEARNING
(non cognitive)
 Define Learning
• Includes all changes in behavior that are quite
permanent and this change is caused by
experiences.

• Natural changes or changes due to drugs,

diseases, fatigue and maturity are NOT considered
learning.
 Are these examples of learning?
• A young child takes her first steps

• An adolescent male feels a strong attraction to

certain females

• 3) A child feels anxious when he sees the doctor

coming with a needle

• 4) Long after learning how to multiply, a child

realizes on her own that another way to multiply
by 5 is to divide by 2 and multiply by 10.
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 Characteristics of Learning
• Learning has taken place when there is a
change in behavior / knowledge

• This change in behavior is relatively permanent

• This change in behavior is the result of

experience

• All experiences received by the individual that

are reinforced are learnt more easily

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 Characteristics of Learning

• Learning is a continuous process

• Leaning is not a result of biological factors /

responses that are genetically inherited

• Learning takes place in 3 ways – formal,

informal, nonformal

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 Theories of Learning

• 1) Behavioural

• 2) Humanistic

• 3) Cognitive

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 LEARNING THEORIES

Cognitive Behavioral Humanistic

Gestalt Bruner Ausubel Information Behaviorism Associative Social

Processing Learning Learning
System

Classical Operant
Conditioning Conditioning

F. Thorndike F. Guthrie

A. Maslow

Carl Rogers 8
 Behavioral Learning Theories

• Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

• Operant Conditioning ( B. F. Skinner)

• The law of Effect (E. L. Thorndike)

• Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura)

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 Behaviorist Learning Theory

• The term Behaviorisme was first introduced by

John B. Watson (1878 – 1958) to indicate that
learning will result in change in behavior which
can be observed and measured.

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 Characteristics of Learning

• Behavior can be observed and measured.

• Learning di based on 2 elements: Stimulus and
Reaction

Stimulus (S)  Reaction (R)

SR Psychology

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 Characteristics of Learning

• Behavior that takes place can be predicted

based on the information about the stimulus.
• Behavior can be controlled or reduced by
creating an environment that punishes the
behaivor.
• Behavior can be enhanced by creating an
environmnent that encourages the behaivor like
giving rewards for the behavior.

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 Implications for teachers

• There are many ways teachers can discipline

the students to modify their behavior. One of the
ways is to control the stimulus (eg give rewards
like time off to play they favorite video games)

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 Classical Conditioning

• Proposed by Ivan Pavlov (1848 – 1936)

• Focused on involuntary leaning behavior like
emotions, and physiological changes like fear,
enhanced heat beat and sweating.

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 Example of Classical Conditioning

Albert plays with a

white rat
Fear Cries
+
Loud sound

When Albert nears

the rat, fear

Way to extinct this behavior:

Albert’s fear of rats is made extinct by giving Albert something that he likes
Whenever he nears the rat.

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 Operant Conditioning

• Proposed by : B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1995)

• Skinner’s experiment – Hungry rat will push the
lever to open the door of the cage to get the
food.

Push Lever  Obtain food

(Action) (Reward)

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 Operant Conditioning

• The rat tries to open the door of the cage several

times to get the food.
• The rat tries many times but it gets the food only
when it is able to push the lever to open the door
of the cage.
• After several attempts, the rat learns to push the
lever to open the door of the cage if it wants
food.

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 Skinner’s Theory

• Reinforcement increase the probability of the

repetition of the bahavior.
• Therefore, the occurrence of a certain behavior
depends on whether it is reinforced or not.

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 Operant conditioning is also called instrumental
conditioning because the action of the student results in the
learning. The learner himself caused the changes in the
environment.

Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning

Reaction
Stimulus (S) Reinforcement
(Student)

Reaction (R)

Most of human behavior is operant conditioning

and this happen without stimulus or force
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 Shaping

• Skinner used this technique to train the pigeon

to play ping-pong and also to walk in the form of
the number 8.

• Skinner gave food as a reinforcement to the

pigeon to form the intended behavior.

• When the intended behavior was achieved,

Skinner removed the reinforcement.

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 Shaping

• Reinforcement was given only when the pigeon

does what was intended.

• Shaping has been used to train animals in circus

to perform complex behaviors.

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 Application of Shaping

• Planning learning

• Planned learning (e.g. Computer Aided

Instruction, CAI)

• Change Behavior (eg.Behavior Modification)

• Train animals

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 Method

• Decide the Goal that should be achieved

• Break the behavior into small parts.
• Reinforcement or feedback is given at each
stage.

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 Positive
Reinforcement
Negative

• Positive Reinforcement strengthens the

probability of a behavior repeating.

• Reinforcement brings comfort, and happiness to

the person.

• Example: Gift (Reinforcement) is given for

scoring high marks (behavior).

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 Reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement is the reinforcement
(stimulus) the causes pain or discomfort to the
person which results in the person repeating the
behavior to avoid the discomfort.

• Example 1: The driver quickly fixes the seat belt to

avoid the irritating warning sound.
• Example 2: A student comes to class early to avoid
punishment where he/she has to collect all the
rubbish around the school,

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 Reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement is NOT the same as
punishment.
• Punishment is a stimulus given to reduce the
occurrence of an undesired behavior or
response.
• 2 types of punishment
1) Presented Punishment (e.g.: canning,
wash the toilet)
2) Removal Punishment (e.g: not allowed to
watch TV for a week or go for the movies)

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Punishment is not encouraged because:

• punishment can increase undesirable behaviors.

• punishment can cause children to be afraid of

their teachers.

• punishment can make a person afraid of a

situation. For eg: afraid of answering questions
in class, afraid to seek help when needed.
•

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Reinforcement Schedule

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 Premack Principle

• States that enjoyable activities can be used to

reinforce participation in less enjoyable
activities.

• For example, parents tell kids “eat your

vegetables first, then you can go and play”.
Parents are using the enjoyable activity (play) to
get the kids to do the less enjoyable activity (eat
vegetable).

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 Premack Principle

• Teachers can use the Premack principle by

alternating more enjoyable activities with less
enjoyable ones and making participation in the
enjoyable activities depend on successful
completion of the less enjoyable ones.

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 LEARNING THEORIES

Cognitive Behavioral Humanistic

Gestalt Bruner Ausubel Information Behaviorism Associative Social

Processing Learning Learning
System

Classical Operant
Conditioning Conditioning

F. Thorndike F. Guthrie

A. Maslow

Carl Rogers 34
 Thorndike Learning Theory

• proposed by Edward L. Thorndike (1874 – 1949)

• also called Learning via trial and error.

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 Thorndike’s Experiment

Cat’s
entrance

Cat’s Food
Exit

-The cat tries to find a way out to get the food until it finds the right route that
will lead it to the exit and food.
- The cat is put back into the box and the process repeated.
- The cat tries again to exit
- The cat finally finds the relationship between the route and food
- Subsequently the cat is able to get to the exit without any difficulty.

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 Thorndike’s Experiment

• According to Thorndike:
• Learning takes place when the student sees the
connection between
• the stimulus and the reaction.
 Law of Effect
• A principle developed by Edward Thorndike
suggesting those responses that are closely
followed by satisfaction will become firmly
attached to the situation and therefore more likely
to reoccur when the situation is repeated.

• Conversely, if the situation is followed by

discomfort, the connections to the situation will
become weaker and the behavior of response is
less likely to occur when the situation is repeated.

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 Law of Exercise

• Exercises reinforces the connection between

stimulus and response.

For example: 2 X 2 = 4 when repeated many

times, a connection is made between 2 x 2 and
4 and this connection is reinforced

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 Law of preparedness

• motivation to learn
For example: the cat must be really hungry for
the experiment to be successful.
Implication for teachers:
1) Give reinforcement or rewards to get the
intended results
2) Exercise must be carried out to strengthen
learning.
3) Teachers must ensure students are ready.
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 Guthrie’s Theory

• proposed by R. Guthrie (1886 – 1959)

• states that learning will take place when there is

a connection between stimulus and response.
Rewards and reinforcement are not necessary

• This theory is also called Theory of Contiguity.

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 Guthrie’s Theory

• according to this theory, as long as a stimulus

and a behavior take place at a same time,
learning will take place.

• learning takes place in the first attempt and the

S-R sequence need not be repeated many
times.

• response that take place in the first situation will

be repeated in other situation if the same
stimulus is faced.
•
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 Guthrie’s Theory

• Behavior – can be changed by rearranging the

sequence of the stimulus – response.
For example: A child throws the bag and the
school uniform on the floor as soon as he/she
enters the house.

This behavior can be altered by asking the child

to wear the school uniform and take the bag
outside the house and try the who process again
and this time doing it properly.

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 Guthrie’s Theory

• Stereotype – example, if TV always show drug

addict as thin men with long hair, then the
people will perceive that all men who are thin
and have long hair are drug addicts.

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 LEARNING THEORIES

Cognitive Behavioral Humanistic

Gestalt Bruner Ausubel Information Behaviorism Associative Social

Processing Learning Learning
System

Classical Operant
Conditioning Conditioning

F. Thorndike F. Guthrie

A. Maslow

Carl Rogers 45
 Social Learning Theory

• Founder Albert Bandura

• also known as Observational Learning
• states that human learn via 2 observational
learning approaches:
a) Vicarious Conditioning
b) Modeling

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 Social Learning Theory

• comprises of the characteristics the theory of

behaviorism and theory of cognition and
reinforcement (as with Skinner’s theory) but the
individual will choose whether to imitate the
behavior or not.

• This theory was first proposed by Miller and

Dollard but Albert Bandura and Walters
developed it further.

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 Vicarious Conditioning

• students behavior can increase or decrease

depending on the reinforcement or punishment
other people get for the same behavior.

• This theory is similar to Operant Conditioning

(Skinner) but the reinforcement is obtained from
encouragement not through reward or fine
imposed.

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 Vicarious Conditioning

• a person need only observe once the behavior

of the model before he/she will perform the
model’s behavior.

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 Vicarious Conditioning

• Organisms are not passive in the social learning

theory because he/she has to process the
information by
• (i) interpreting the stimulus and response.
(ii) formulate hypothesis, for example like
considering the consequence of the
behavior.
(iii) make decisions based on the expected
results
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 Modeling

• a person learns a behavior after observing

another doing it.

• He/she need not see someone rewarded or

punished.

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 Modeling

• There are 2 types of modeling:

a) Identification– copying someone
unconciously, without knowing it.
b) Copying – copying deliberately. Following
the models behavior until it become
normal.

Model = is someone like a parent, brother or sister,

or someone famous, peers, teachers or anyone
that the person likes or respects like film stars
and writers.

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 Bandura’s Experiment
• Preschool children are divided into 5 groups. They are
given different experiences as follows:

Group 1: Children observe an adult beating a doll called the

Bobo doll.
Group 2: Children watch a film showing the same incident.
Group 3: Children watch a cartoon character doing the
same thing to the doll.
Group 4: Children are not given any of these experiences.
Group 5: Children watch an adult who watch an non-
aggressive adult.
Which group will act aggressively when they
see a Bobo Doll?

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 Answer:

• Group 1 -3 will show an aggressive behavior when

they see the Bobo Doll, they will hit the doll just
the how the adult hit the doll in the film or cartoon
in the film.
• They will more aggressive than those in Group 4
but Group 5 will be less aggressive than Group 4.

This experiment shows that the behavior of the

observer is influenced by the model irregardless of
whether the model is an adult, cartoon or an
actual incident.

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 Social Learning Theory

• Behavior learnt via social learning theory are:

1) Social behavior
2) Attitude
3) Physical skills
4) Language skills

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Application of the Social Learning Theory

• Companies advertise goods or services.

• Exposure to models can influence observers in 3
ways:
a) learning new behavior
b) eliciting behaviors the are learnt
c) prevent certain observer’s responses.

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 Social Learning Theory

• Social Learning Theory can be used effectively

in teaching and learning if attention is given to
these 4 elements:

1) Attention: Attention is given to someone

who has status, expertise, skills and power.
Therefore, teachers must use color, or
attractive aspects of teaching aids to attract the
students’ attention.

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 Social Learning Theory
2) Retention
The model’s behavior can be better remembered
if teachers and students explain each procedure
and students observe and write down each
procedure.
3) Production
Exercise can enhance skills observed.
This can facilitate the effectiveness of the
learning of skills.
Feedback is needed to elicit the intended behavior

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 Social LearningTheory
4) Motivation and reinforcement
- Behavior that is learnt via observation can be
encouraged by:
a) direct reinforcement
b) reinforcement which is included in the
behavior itself.
For example, if the behavior is accepted by society, it
is a reinforcement in itself.
c) Vicarious Reinforcement – observing the
consequence of a certain behavior – whether
it is reinforced or punished.
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