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Inquiries, Invest igat ions and

Im m ersions
Objec t ives of t he Ses ion
At the end of the session, the participants
should be able to:
✓ Discuss the importance of the curriculum
guide
✓ Explain how to use the curriculum guide in
planning for instruction
✓ Explore Grade 12 Inquiries, Investigations
and Immersion Curriculum guide and
instructional materials
✓ Give sample learning activities for the
learning competencies of Inquiries,
Investigations and Immersion
DE PARTME NT OF E DUCATION
What is research?
Research is
□ A study/investigation
□ A scientific investigation
□ Is a study on investigation which is done
systematically, empirically, scientifically,
and logically for the purpose of achieving
knowledge and helping solve situational
problems.
Characteristics of a Research
Process
□ Systematic - well defined designs, an
orderly procedure
□ Empirical – measurable and observable
things or phenomenon that you can put in
print on the bases of your senses.
□ Scientific – can be tested
□ Logical – justifiable and acceptable by
reason
Purpose of Research

1. Discover new knowledge


2. Help solve situational problems
System Framework of research

□ INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

(Theories/Principles)
Skills and abilities Pure/Basic research
necessary in (Idealistic)
conducting Solutions to
Research/Scientific problems
Investigation (Social
Responsibility

Input Output
System Framework of research
Aims at developing a person to be-

ENVIRONMENT •Sensitive to
surroundings
Social • Systematic
Political • Critical
Economic • Objective
Educational • Logical
Technological • Rational
Physical • Analytical
Critical Researcher- has the “3rd
eyes”, seeks the truth from what he
reads, does not take them hook-line
and sinker, does not jump into
conclusions. Treat opinions as
opinions
Begin with
a TOPIC in
mind
10
TOPIC

Relevant
Significant
Feasible
11
Brainstorming for Research Topics
1. Scheduling 7.Field trips
2. Team teaching 8. School facilities
3. Evaluation of 9.Extracurricular
learning, programs
reporting to 10.Uses of ICT in
parents Instruction
4. Student 11. Stress
regulation management
5. Learning styles 12.Guidance-
6. Peer Tutoring counseling
programs
I. Brainstorming for Research
Topics
STEP 1: Topic
KIden
ey Qtuifiescta
iotnio
s:n
a.What do I know about the
topic?
b.What should I know about the
topic?
c.What do previous studies say
about my chosen topic?
II. Identifying the Problem and
Asking the Question

Specific Consideration in Choosing a


Problem
Workability
Is it within the limit and range of your resource
and time constraints?
Will you have access to the number of samples
required?
Is there reason to believe that you can come up
with the answers to the problem?
Is the required methodology manageable and
understandable?
II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question

Specific Consideration in Choosing


a Problem
Critical Mass
Is the problem sufficient in magnitude and
scope (are there enough variables and
potential results)?
Interest
Are you interested in the problem?
Does it relate to your career interest?
II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question

Specific Consideration in Choosing


a Problem
Theoretical Value
Does the problem fill a gap in the literature?
Will it contribute to the advancement in your
field?
Does it improve the “state of the art”?
II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question

Specific Consideration in Choosing


a Problem
Practical Values
Will the solution to the problem improve
practice?
Are practitioners likely to be interested in the
results?
Will the findings aid the managers in making
sound decisions?
Will the system be changed by the outcome?
Situational Problem – Research Problem
SEE Situation in the
EXPERIENCE Environment
• Social
• Political
OBSERVE
• Physical
HEAR
• Economic
READ
• Religious/Moral
FEEL Source of Situational Problem
RESEARCH PROBLEM
Meaningful sensation of
-a scientific
the condition in the
investigation of the
environment that bothers
different dimensions
you and which you alone
associated with the
cannot solve.
situational problem
involving 2 or more
factors or variables
Example
Knowledge of child abuse existing
in the environment are problems
that can be derived from this
situation. Problems would be –
a. Do children abused sexually
come from
-broken homes or not
-one-parent homes or not
-poor families or not
The research problem is just a
part of the whole pie. It
investigates two or more
variables, particularly, how these
variables are related.
II. Identifying the Problem and
Asking the Question
Background of the Problem
It is the presentation of the concept
of the study in a very effective
manner.
1. It must include an assumption of
significance.
2. It must be a loaded statement that
would drive an impact to emote
interest from the reader.
3. It must be simple, clear, specific and
related to the topic.
II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question
Background of the Problem

This introductory page acquaints


the reader with the problem to be
dealt with. This orientation is
best accomplished by providing
rationale or background.
II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question
Background of the Problem

The background intends to draw


a clearer picture of what you
want to say. It describes clearly,
colorfully and vividly the problem
situation which serves as the
rationale of the study.
II. Identifying the Problem
and Asking the Question
Background of the Problem
It presents in details the problem
situation based on what you
SEE AND OBSERVE HEAR READ

Happenings Lectures/Speeches Newspapers


Events Radio and TV Journal
Broadcasting
Phenomenon Conversations Books
Personal Experience Interviews Reports &
Monographs
SEE AND OBSERVE HEAR READ

Happenings Lectures/Speeches Newspapers


Events Radio and TV Journal
Broadcasting
Phenomenon Conversations Books
Personal Experience Interviews Reports &
Monographs

Records of Critical Records of Records of findings,


Incidents opinions, positions, figures/statistical
values data
1. Background of the Problem

The purpose of the background is to


highlight the need for the study by
presenting what is happening at
present and what ought to be using the
data that the researcher has gathered.

It identifies the area in which the


problem is to be found, and points out
that the problem had not been fully
studied.
2. Conceptual Framework

This deals with the key concepts and


related literature underlying the
framework that guides the study. The
purpose of this is:
1. To expand the context and
background of the study
2. To help further define the problem
3. To provide an empirical basis for the
subsequent development/formulation
of hypothesis.
2. Conceptual Framework

The initial step is to identify the key


variables of the study. This refers to
the independent, dependent and
moderator variables to be investigated.
2. Conceptual Framework

The second step is to look for the


definitions of the variables. For the
dependent variables the following should
be done:
1. Define the variable (universal definition)
2. Describe its characteristics and
indicators
3. Discuss its importance (how it affects
other variables) and how it is affected
by other variables (independent
variables)
2. Conceptual Framework

For the independent variable, define


and describe its characteristics and
indicators. Discuss its effect on the
dependent variable on the basis of the
review of related literature and studies.
The same should be done for the
moderator variables.
2. Conceptual Framework

The discussion should point out how


the previous studies relate to the
present investigation by highlighting
their similarities and differences. More
importantly, it must include some
relevant theories and concepts that
help in the development of the present
study.
2. Conceptual Framework

Organizing the literature review


section by subheadings makes it easier
for the researcher to follow. To be
meaningful, this subheadings should
reflect the variables and their
relationship.
2. Conceptual Framework

We should remember that the purpose of


literature review is to provide a basis for the
formulation of hypothesis.

The conceptual framework is summarized or


synthesized into a logical network of
relationship of the key concepts or variables
involved in the study. This is further simplified
by presenting a research paradigm or
hypothetical illustration of the relationship of
variables and their corresponding indicators.
3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)

Hypothesis – is a conjectural statement of


the relation between two or more variables.
It is a tentative or temporary answer to a
research problem.
3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)

It has the following characteristics:

1. It should conjecture upon a relationship


between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly and
unambiguously in a declarative statement.
3. It should be testable; that is it should be
possible to restate it in an operational form
which can be evaluated based on data.
3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)

Example:

I.Q. and achievement test are positively


related.
3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)

There are two approaches for developing


hypothesis:

Deduction – starts from generalization or


theory by logical deduction.

Induction – starts from observation, opinions


to generalizations.
3. Research Hypothesis
(for quantitative research)

General Classification of Hypothesis


RESEARCH/ This temporarily
ALTERNATIVE (H1) asserts the
relationship of
variables
NULL/TEST (Ho) Denies the relationship
of variables
4. Statement of the Problem

The advantages of stating the statement


of the problem are:
1. It provides the reader with an
immediate basis from which to
interpret subsequent statements
2. It makes it possible to quickly
determine the purpose of the study.
The reader will not have to search for
the introduction and background to
discover the problem being examined.
4. Statement of the Problem

A problem statement must have the


following characteristics:
1. It should ask about a relationship
between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated clearly,
unambiguously and usually in question
form.
3. It should be possible to collect data to
answer the question asked.
4. It should not represent a moral or
ethical position.
4. Statement of the Problem

One or two sentences will normally


suffice to state the problem. Often the
statement begins as follows:
The purpose of this study is to examine
the relationship between…….(state the
variables, locale and time as the case
maybe).
4. Statement of the Problem

Specifically, it seeks answers to the


following questions:
1. What is the relation between I.Q.
and achievement?
2. Is there a relationship between
economic background and dropout
rate?
5. Definition of Terms

The definition is based on the


observable characteristics of that which
is being defined.

What is important is the nature of these


observations upon which definitions are
based.
5. Definition of Terms

There are 3 approaches or types of


constructing definitions. These are arbitrarily
labelled as A, B, and C by Bruce W. Tuckman.

A type A definition can be constructed in terms


of the operations that must be performed to
cause the phenomenon or state being defined
to occur.

An intelligent child can be defined


operationally as the child produced by the
marriage of above average, intelligent couples.
5. Definition of Terms

A type B definition can be constructed in


terms of how the particular object or
thing defined operates, that is what it
does or what constitute its dynamic
properties.

Thus an intelligent student can be


operationally defined as a person who
gets high grades in school or a person
who demonstratescapability for solving
complicated mathematical problems.
5. Definition of Terms

A type C definition can be constructed


in terms of what the object or
phenomenon being defined looks like
that is what constitutes its static
properties. Thus, an intelligent student
can be defined for instance as a person
who has a good memory, large
vocabulary, good reasoning ability,
good mathematical skills, etc.
5. Definition of Terms

Ideally, the operational definition


should contain three parts. The first
part is its universal meaning. The
second part is how it is being used in
the study. The third is how it is being
measured.
6. Importance of the Study

It is at this point that the researcher


described who will benefit and what benefits
can be derived from the findings of the
study. The writer, under this section, tries
to sell its importance to the panel or to the
funding agency.
7. Scope and limitations of the Study

This tells the specific boundaries of the


study by describing the place or venue of the
study, the population, subjects/respondents,
time frame, the variables and their
indicators.

Any weakness of the study such as failure


to use a more precise data gathering or
measuring instrument or failure to execute
an important procedure due to certain
circumstances beyond the researcher’s
control form part of the study’s limitations.
Learner’s Output: List
of Related Literature
A literature review is a re-
view of something that has
already been written

LITERATURE REVIEW
STEP 1a: Literature Review: The Research
Powerhouse

A literature review is an account of what


has been published on a topic by
accredited scholars and researchers

•Generativity is one of the hallmarks of


scholarship (Shulman, 1999). It is the
ability to build on the scholarship and
research of those who have come before
us.
52
Why do a literature review?
A literature review can be a precursor in
the introduction of a research paper
A literature review is a critical and in
depth evaluation of previous research. It
is a summary and synopsis of a particular
area of research, allowing anybody
reading the paper to establish why you
are pursuing this particular research
project.
Finding related research articles
typically requires competence on
the internet.
Search through databases that
have indexed information on
thousands of research articles
that have been conducted

Tips for Searching for Resources on the


Internet
Tips for Searching for Resources on
the Internet
• List the major or key variables/concepts in the study
• List synonyms for each variable
• Outline the major points to be made in the literature
review
• Do not limit your search to only studies that examine all of
the same variables as your study.
• Put key phrases in quotation marks
• When searching online, use the limit function to reduce
searches that have too many results.
• Limit your use of Google
• Do not cite wikipedia as a source. Like Google, anybody
can edit articles on wikipedia. Therefore, wikipedia should
never be used as a source for an academic paper.
• Use the resources you have to find additional resources.
Boolean logic is the
way to put terms together
in a search by using AND,
OR, NOT

Tips for Searching for Resources on


the Internet
Using AND
•When you use AND you will be
looking for articles containing two or
more words within each article.
For example, employee AND
motivation would retrieve articles
with both words in the article.
Use AND when you are
searching for concepts and want to
be more specific in your search (to
narrow it down).
Using OR
When you use OR you will be
looking for articles containing either
one word or the other word.
For Example, employee OR
personnel OR staff. You would use
OR for similar concepts and
alternative words or synonyms (to
broaden out your search).
Using NOT
When you use NOT you will
be looking for one term but not
the other.
For example, you might search
for broadband NOT wireless. You
would use NOT to exclude irrelevant
results (to narrow down your
search).
Table 1 Writing styles – opening sentence
Good opening style Opening style to avoid
Early work by Thomas (1996)
shows that … Thomas (1996) said …

Another study on the topic by Brown said (2000) …


Brown (2000) asserts that …
Smith (2003) wrote ….
The latest research (Smith,
2003) show …
Table 2 Verbs and synonyms, to use in writing about text and making an
argument

Account for Clarify Describe Exemplify Investigate Recognize

Analyze Compare & Determine Expand Judge Reflect

contrast
Argues Conclude Discuss Explain Justify Refer to
Assess Criticize Distinguish Exhibit Narrate Relate to
Debate Differentiate Identify Outline Report
Assert Evaluate Illustrate Persuade Review
Defend
Assume Define Emphasize Imply Propose Suggest

Claim Demonstrat Examine Indicate Question Summarize


e
Table 3. Forming critical sentences using signaling words
As a consequence of x then y
Consequently, …
Hence …
Therefore, …
Thus …
In short …
In effect …/ It follows that …
This indicates that …
This suggests that …
This points to the conclusion that …
This most obvious explanation is …
This means that …
Finally, …

Source: Brown and Keeley (2004)


Writing the Literature
Review
Writing the Theoretical
Background
(The SEC Approach)

Rule 1: State the theory Suggested


Sentence Stems

The theoretical basis of this paper is This


paper is theoretically anchored on This paper
is premised on
The theory of underpins this study
We draw on to (state the objective of the
paper)

Rule 2: Explain the theory


Rule 3: Contextualize the theory

LITERATURE REVIEW
Rule 1: Synoptic Dimension

• Defining what the construct is all about


• Stating what has been said about the
variable (relationship, effect, difference) or it
historical development

Rule 2: Argumentative Dimension

Build arguments either through sentence of


problematising (SOP) or the need for the study
(NFS)
Variable: Teaching Beliefs
Literature 1 Claim 1 Evidence
Literature 2
Literature 3 Claim 2 Evidence
Literature 4
Literature 5 Claim 3 Evidence
Literature 6
Literature 7

Indicate the How do the findings Cite specific studies


findings of each of relate? How do the from your literature
the literature findings differ? From review that will support
reviewed these similarities the claims made in
and differences, frame 2
what can we
possibly claim?
Literature 1
Finding 1
Finding 2
Finding 3

Literature 2
Finding 1
Finding 2
Finding 3
Finding 4

Literature 3
Finding 1
Finding 2
The Need for
Finding 3 Dendrogramming
Literature 4
Finding 1
Finding 2
Finding 3

Literature 5
Finding 1
Finding 2
Finding 3
Finding 4
Finding 5
Example write-up (CF)
The conceptual framework underlying this study is anchored
on the concepts of research capability, workload, and
research productivity.

Research Capability
Research capability is simply the capability of the faculty to
undertake research. All the resources or inputs which enable
the faculty member to conduct research are considered as
components of research capability (Deza, 1999; Banaag,
1994). Salazar-Clemena and Almonte-Acosta (2007)
enumerated indicators of research capability which include
budget for research, the ability to obtain research grants, the
provision of research infrastructure, the ability to collaborate
with and access to research professionals, and the presence
of rules and procedure on the granting of rewards for
research.
Example write-up (CF)
In this study, research capability is described in terms of
technical skills in doing research, skills in conceptualizing a
research problem, knowledge and skills in designing the
research plan, knowledge and skills on research data
processing, and knowledge and skills in writing the research
paper. Technical skills include written communication
(expressing one’s ideas and arguments using language
rules, presenting and packaging ideas effectively); oral
communication (expressing one’s ideas and arguments
using language rules, presenting and packaging ideas
effectively); critical /analytical thinking (evaluating ideas,
analyzing the arguments of others); problem-solving;
research organization (parts, format of a research paper);
online search , use of electronic resources, databases &
search engines; use of computer commands/programs/
software; and acknowledging or citing sources/ cross-
referencing.
Example write-up (CF)
Determinants of Research Productivity
Previous foreign and local studies have revealed
that the reasons for low research productivity
among faculty members are poor or lack of
research skills (Anunobi & Emerole, 2008; Iqbal,
2011); lack of research funds (Anunobi & Emerole,
2008; Iqbal, 2011; Mahilum, 2010); and heavy
workload or teaching overload (Iqbal, 2011;
Mahilum, 2010; Mordeno, 2002). Iqbal (2011)
added performance of administrative duties along
with academic duties, nonexistence of research
leave, negative attitude of the faculty towards
research and absence of professional journals while
Anunobi & Emerole (2008) included time constraints
as impediments to research publication.
Example write-up (CF)
Determinants of Research Productivity
Predictors of research productivity include
teachers training or having research
orientation (Finkelstein, 1984, Banaag, 1994,
Mordeno, 2002); academic rank (Flanigan, et
al.,1988; Banaag, 1994); highest educational
attainment (Finkelstein, 1984; Flanigan, et
al.,1988; Banaag, 1994);and sufficient time
allocated to research (Finkelstein, 1984).
Example write-up (CF)
While several studies have been made to investigate
correlates of research productivity, studies on research
capability in terms of specific research skills of teachers
were lacking. In this end, the researchers were
motivated to conduct this research that explored the
levels of proficiency of teachers on different skills that
determine their capability in doing research and how
this capability can be associated to research
productivity. Workload in terms of hours of work and
number of teaching preparations was also investigated
to verify its impact on faculty productivity in research. In
the end, it is aimed that this research may contribute to
the existing literatures on determinants of research
productivity.
Read enough background material
todiscuss the research and the theory
giving a reasonably complete account of
our knowledge of the topic
Present data that are based on data
and theory, including conflicting views of
different researchers.
Make it easy for the reader to
understand how all of the studies
interrelate.

Remember!
Writing the Introduction (The
TIOC Approach)

Pointers: The TIOC Approach


• Highlight then trend/s in the field
• Pinpoint the issues underlying the
trend/s
• State the overall objective/intent of the
paper in the light of the gap identified
• Discuss the possible contribution of the
research attempt to advancing/improving
disciplinal theory, research, practice and
policy
• (cross-reference to strengthen claims
Source: De Guzamn (2012). Writing for Intl Publication
Some Approaches to Starting the
Introduction
Make a compelling statement about
an important issue
There is a strong evidence that computer games are hugely
popular. For example, as of 2002, more money was spent on
computer games in the United States- 6.9billion dollars- than
on box-office movies, and approximately 145 million
Americans (or about 60% of the population over age 6)
regularly played computer games (Lee, Park, & Jin, 2006).
Advocates of educational gaming have proposed that
educators should harness the appeal of computer games as a
vehicle for fostering student learning, but reviews of the
research literature have not yielded strong support for the
instructional effectiveness of computer games (Adams,
Mayer, McNamara, Koenig, & Wainess, 2011).
Some Approaches to Starting the
Introduction
Identifying the Scope of
Previous Research
The literature on suicide and suicide risk factors is extensive.
The research includes clinical reports, intervention strategies,
identification of individual risk factors, demographic patterns
of suicide, and estimates of base rates in different ages and
culture. A subset of this literature has examined suicide in
college students. College students suicide research is
longstanding and an increasing number of articles address
the topic each year (Stephenson, Belesis, & Balliet, 2005)
Some Approaches to Starting the
Introduction

Presenting a
Statistics
Health outcomes are increasingly
recognized as socially patterned, In 2001-
2002, the leading causes of death were
heart disease, cancer and stroke (Jackson,
Kubzansky, & Wright, 2006).
Some Approaches to Starting the
Introduction

Describing common
occurrences
For traditionally male jobs,.. Women are
less likely to be hired than men. They are
also paid less, given less authority, and
promoted less often. ..Conversely, male
applicants are discriminated against for
jobs that are considered feminine (Ulhmann
& Cohen, 2005),
“A
o

Wh
di
in
so
ta
tr
so

Plagiarism
Table 6.1. Basic Citation Styles
Type of citation First citation in Subsequent Parenthetical Parenthetical
text citations in text format, first format,
citation in text subsequent
citations in text

One w ork b Walker (20 7 Walker (20 7 (Walker, 20 7 (Walker, 20 7


) ) ) )
y
on e au th or Walker and Walker and (Walker & (Walker & A len
,20 4)
One w ork b A len (20 4 A len (20 4) A len, 20 4
y ) Brad ley et al ) (Brad ley et al.
two au thor ,
Brad ley, . (19 9) Ram
(Bradirez
ley, & So ,
s Ram irez, an 19 9) 19 9)
One w ork b d So
One w ork b Brad ley, Brad ley et al (Brad ley, (Brad ley et al.
y th re (19 9)
y Ram irez, S . (20 6) Ram irez, So , 20 6)
au thors
fou r au thor o &
s and Walsh Walsh, 20 6)
(20 6)
Type of citation First citation in Subsequent Parenthetical Parenthetical
text citations in text format, first format,
citation in text subsequent
citations in text

One work b Walker, A len Walker et al (Walker, A len (Walker et al.


y , Brad ley, . (20 8) , Brad ley, , 20 8)
fiv e au thors Ram irez, an Ram irez, & So
,20 8
d So
)
One work by six (20 8) Was erstein e (Was erstein e (Was erstein e
Was erstein et t t al., 20 5) t al., 20 5)
Grou p s (read
or m ore ily al. (20 5)
au thors N
al.IMH
(20 (20
5) 3 (N ational (N IMH , 20 3
N ational ) )
id en tifie d Institu te of Institu te of
th rou gh Mental H ealt M en tal H ealt
ab reviation) as h h
(N
auIMH
thor , 20 3) [N IMH ], 20 3
s
Grou p s (n o University o Un iversity o )(University of (Un iversity of
ab f f Pit sbu rgh , 20 5) Pit sbu rgh , 2
reviaton) as Pit sbu rgh Pit sbu rgh 0 5)
au thors (20 5) (20 5)
Beins, B.C. APA simplified style: Writing
inpsychology, nursing, education, and
sociology. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
De Guzman, A.B. Writing for
international publication. Presented in a
seminar- workshop 2012
explorable.com/what-is-a-literature-
review
Korb, K. (2015). Conducting
educational research: Search the
Research Literature

References
1. Research Design
A research design is a plan or strategy in
order to answer the research problem and
control (variance) for validity. This is the
over-all plan for the conduct of the
investigation.
Hence, substantially a design is intended
to answer the problem; and, technically it
provides control for validity.
Understanding Ways to Collect
Data
1. Research Design
Essentially, research designs may be
classified only in two (2) categories on the
basis of maximum control for validity:
2. non-design or non-experimental
(descriptive)
3. True Design or experimental design

Understanding Ways to Collect


Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A.Pre-experimental design (non-design)
Not recommended for use
-designs which do not control adequate
against sources of internal validity
1. One shot case study
2. One-group pre-test-post-test design
B. Quasi-experimental design
U
Cn dre
.T rsEtxapned
ue inegntW
rim al a
Dyes
sigtn
o Collect
Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B.Quasi-experimental design
-this design controls some but not all
sources of internal invalidity due to existing
conditions by which experimental control is
difficult if not impossible.
C.True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to Collect
Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
1. Expost facto design – This is the study in which
the researcher examine the effects of
naturalistically occurring treatment after that
treatment has occurred rather than creating
the treatment itself. The researcher attempts
to rotate this after the fact.
2. Co-relational standard
U
C.nTd
rueerE
sxtpaen dein
rim ntg
al W aigyns to Collect
Des
Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
1. Expost facto design
2. Co-relational standard – this involves two or
more sets of data from a group of subjects with
an attempt to determine the subsequent
relation between those sets of data.
C. True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to Collect
Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
1. Expost facto design
2. Co-relational standard – serve as useful
purpose in determining the relationship among
measures and suggesting possible bases for
causality, while correlation does not necessarily
imply causation.
C. True Experimental Design
Understanding Ways to Collect
Data
1. Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A. Pre-experimental design (non-design)
B. Quasi-experimental design
C. True Experimental Design – provide
complete adequate controls for all sources of
internal invalidity (only possible for non-human
subjects
1. Post-only control group design
2. Pretest-post test control group design

Understanding Ways to Collect


Data
Experimental Research
Most powerful design
Used to establish cause and effect
by manipulating (influencing) an IV
(independent variable, aka treatment
or experimental variable) to see its
effect on a DV (dependent variable
,aka criterion or outcome variable)
Goes beyond description and
prediction
Experimental Research

• Comparison of groups (at least two groups of


subjects, called treatment and control groups)
• Manipulation of the IV (experimenter changes
something for the treatment group that’s different
than the control group)
• Randomization (true experiments require random
assignment into treatment/control conditions…
after random selection of subjects to participate in
study)
• Assignment takes place at start of experiment
Experimental Research

Do not use already formed groups


Groups should be equivalent
(any differences due to chance)
Randomization eliminates
threats from extraneous variables
Groups must be sufficiently large to
be equivalent
All extraneous variables must be
to eliminate threats to validity/rival
controlled
hypotheses
Ensure groups are equivalent to begin
using randomization
Hold certain variables constant (i.e.
age, IQ) or build them into to the design

Experimental Research
Use matching when necessary
Use subjects as their own
controls (treat same group first in
control condition then in treatment
OR use pre-test/posttest on same
group)
Use analysis of covariance to
statistically equate unequivalent
groups

Experimental Research
Weak Designs(Pre experimental
Designs)
True Experimental
Designs

Quasi Experimental
Designs

Experimental Research
(Group Designs)
Pre-Experimental Designs

• Do not adequately control for the problems


associated with loss of external or internal
validity
• Cannot be classified as true experiments
• Often used in exploratory research
• Three Examples of Pre-Experimental Designs
◦ One-Shot Design
◦ One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
◦ Static Group Design
One-Shot Design

• A.K.A. – after-only design


• A single measure is recorded after the treatment
is administered
• Study lacks any comparison or control of
extraneous influences
• No measure of test units not exposed to the
experimental treatment
• May be the only viable choice in taste tests
• Diagrammed as: X O1
One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

Subjects in the experimental group are


measured before and after the treatment
is administered.
No control group
Offers comparison of the same
individuals before and after the treatment
(e.g., training)
If time between & 2nd measurements is
1stextended, may suffer maturation
Can also suffer from history, mortality,
and testing effects
Diagrammed O1 X O2
as
Static Group Design
• A.K.A., after-only design with control group
• Experimental group is measured after being exposed
to the experimental treatment
• Control group is measured without having been
exposed to the experimental treatment
• No pre-measure is taken
• Major weakness is lack of assurance that the groups
were equal on variables of interest prior to the
treatment
• Diagrammed as: Experimental Group X
O1 Control Group O2

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