COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
LECTURE NO. 2
SOIL SETTLEMENT
ANY STRUCTURE BUILT ON SOIL IS SUBJECT TO
SETTLEMENT. SOME SETTLEMENT IS INEVITABLE AND,
DEPENDING ON THE SITUATION, SOME SETTLEMENTS ARE
TOLERABLE.
SOIL SETTLEMENT CAUSED BY LOADS MAY BE DIVIDED INTO
THREE CATEGORIES:

• ELASTIC SETTLEMENT (OR IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT) – CAUSED BY ELASTIC

DEFORMATION OF DRY SOIL AND OF MOIST AND SATURATED SOILS WITHOUT ANY
CHANGE IN THE MOISTURE CONTENT.

• PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT – RESULTS OF A VOLUME

CHANGE IN SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS BECAUSE OF EXPULSION OF THE WATER
THAT OCCUPIES THE VOID SPACES.

• SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT – RESULT OF PLASTIC

ADJUSTMENT OF SOIL FABRICS
THE TOTAL SETTLEMENT OF A FOUNDATION:

Total Soil Settlement

ST = Sc + Ss + Se

Primary Secondary Immediate

Consolidated Consolidated Settlement
Settlement Settlement Se
Sc Ss

Normally
Consolidated Clay

Over Consolidated
Clay
CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT
THE CAUSES OF FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT ARE RARELY DUE TO THE DESIGN (OR
UNDER-DESIGN) OF THE STRUCTURE ITSELF. MORE COMMONLY, DAMAGE IS CAUSED
AS CHANGES OCCUR WITHIN THE FOUNDATION SOILS THAT SURROUND AND SUPPORT
THE STRUCTURE.

THE FOLLOWING BRIEFLY DESCRIBES A FEW OF THE MORE COMMON CAUSES OF

FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT:
WEAK BEARING SOILS
POOR COMPACTION
CHANGES IN MOISTURE CONTENT
MATURING TREES AND VEGETATION
SOIL CONSOLIDATION
WEAK BEARING SOILS
• SOME SOILS ARE SIMPLY NOT CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING THE
WEIGHT OR BEARING PRESSURE EXERTED BY A BUILDING'S
FOUNDATION. AS A RESULT, THE FOOTINGS PRESS OR SINK
INTO THE SOFT SOILS, SIMILAR IN THEORY TO HOW A
PERSON STANDING IN THE MUD SINKS INTO SOFT, WET CLAY.

• IN SUCH CASES, FOOTINGS MAY BE DESIGNED TO SPREAD

THE LOAD OVER THE WEAK SOILS, THEREBY REDUCING
POTENTIAL FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT. HOWEVER, THE
MAJORITY OF SETTLEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED BY WEAK
BEARING SOILS OCCUR IN RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION,
WHERE THE FOOTINGS ARE DESIGNED BASED UPON
GENERAL GUIDELINES AND NOT SITE-SPECIFIC SOIL
INFORMATION.
POOR COMPACTION
• PLACEMENT OF FILL SOILS IS COMMON PRACTICE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF BOTH COMMERCIAL AND RESIDENTIAL
SUBDIVISIONS.

• IN GENERAL, BEFORE A FOUNDATION CAN BE

CONSTRUCTED ON A PLOT, HILLTOPS ARE CUT DOWN AND
VALLEYS ARE FILLED IN ORDER TO CREATE BUILDABLE LOTS.
PROPERLY PLACED AND COMPACTED FILL SOILS CAN
PROVIDE ADEQUATE SUPPORT FOR FOUNDATIONS, AND
ARE SOMETIMES BROUGHT IN FROM OFF-SITE LOCATIONS.

• WHEN FILL SOILS ARE NOT ADEQUATELY COMPACTED,

THEY CAN COMPRESS UNDER A FOUNDATION LOAD
RESULTING IN SETTLEMENT OF THE STRUCTURE.
CHANGES IN MOISTURE CONTENT
• EXTREME CHANGES IN MOISTURE CONTENT WITHIN FOUNDATION SOILS CAN RESULT IN
DAMAGING SETTLEMENT. EXCESS MOISTURE CAN SATURATE FOUNDATION SOILS, WHICH OFTEN
LEADS TO SOFTENING OR WEAKENING OF CLAYS AND SILTS. THE REDUCED ABILITY OF THE SOIL
TO SUPPORT THE LOAD RESULTS IN FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT. INCREASED MOISTURE WITHIN
FOUNDATION SOILS IS OFTEN A CONSEQUENCE OF POOR SURFACE DRAINAGE AROUND THE
STRUCTURE, LEAKS IN WATER LINES OR PLUMBING, OR A RAISED GROUNDWATER TABLE.
• SOILS WITH HIGH CLAY CONTENTS ALSO HAVE A
TENDENCY TO SHRINK WITH LOSS OF MOISTURE. AS
CLAY SOILS DRY OUT, THEY SHRINK OR CONTRACT,
RESULTING IN A GENERAL DECREASE IN SOIL
VOLUME.
• THEREFORE, SETTLEMENT DAMAGE IS OFTEN
OBSERVED IN A STRUCTURE SUPPORTED ON DRIED-
OUT SOIL. DRYING OF FOUNDATION SOILS IS
COMMONLY CAUSED BY EXTENSIVE DROUGHT-LIKE
CONDITIONS, MATURING TREES AND VEGETATION
AND LEAKING SUBFLOOR HEATING, VENTILATION,
AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC) SYSTEMS.
MATURING TRESS AND VEGETATION
• MATURING TREES, BUSHES AND OTHER VEGETATION IN CLOSE PROXIMITY
TO A HOME OR BUILDING ARE A COMMON CAUSE OF SETTLEMENT. AS
TREES AND OTHER VEGETATION MATURE, THEIR DEMAND FOR WATER
ALSO GROWS.
• THE ROOT SYSTEMS CONTINUALLY EXPAND AND CAN DRAW MOISTURE
FROM THE SOIL BENEATH THE FOUNDATION. AGAIN, CLAY-RICH SOILS
SHRINK AS THEY LOSE MOISTURE, RESULTING IN SETTLEMENT OF OVERLYING
STRUCTURES. MANY HOME AND BUILDING OWNERS OFTEN STATE THAT
THEY DID NOT HAVE A SETTLEMENT PROBLEM UNTIL DECADES AFTER THE
STRUCTURE WAS BUILT.
• This time frame coincides with the maturation and growth of the trees
and vegetation.
• Foundations closer to the surface are more often affected by soil
dehydration due to tree roots than are deep, basement level
foundations. As a general rule, the diameter of a tree's root system is at
least as large as the tree's canopy.
SOIL CONSOLIDATION

• CONSOLIDATION OCCURS WHEN THE WEIGHT OF A

STRUCTURE OR NEWLY-PLACED FILL SOILS COMPRESS LOWER,
WEAK CLAYEY SOILS. THE APPLIED LOAD FORCES WATER OUT
OF THE CLAY SOILS, ALLOWING THE INDIVIDUAL SOIL
PARTICLES TO BECOME MORE DENSELY SPACED.

• CONSOLIDATION RESULTS IN DOWNWARD MOVEMENT OR

SETTLEMENT OF OVERLYING STRUCTURES. SETTLEMENT CAUSED
BY CONSOLIDATION OF FOUNDATION SOILS MAY TAKE WEEKS,
MONTHS, OR YEARS TO BE CONSIDERED "COMPLETE."

• AS THIS OCCURS, THE FOUNDATION WILL EXPERIENCE

DOWNWARD MOVEMENT -- SOMETIMES AT AN UNEVEN RATE.
THIS LEADS TO CRACKS AND STRUCTURAL DAMAGE
 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT
•The elastic settlement in the soil occurs instantaneously when the load (weight of the
foundations) exerts on the soil. This is why the elastic settlement is also called immediate
settlement
• No alternation of the moisture content of the soil by elastic settlement
• The magnitude of the contact settlement depends on the flexibility of the foundation

Elastic Settlement or Immediate Settlement depends

on
> Load Type (Rigid; Flexible)
> Settlement Location (Center or Corner)

Elastic Settlement
> Theory of Elasticity
> Time Depended Elastic Settlement (Schmertman & Hartman Method (1978)

Elastic settlement occurs in sandy, silty, and clayey soils.

ELASTIC SETTLEMENT (FOR FLEXIBLE FOUNDATION)
 IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT EQUATION
Elastic Parameters of Various Soils
Young’s Modulus, Es

Type of Soil MN/m2 Lb/in2 Poisson’s Ratio

Loose Sand 10.35 – 24.15 1,500 - 3,500 0.20 – 0.40

Medium Dense Sand 17.25 – 27.60 2,500 – 4,000 0.25 – 0.40
Dense Sand 34.50 – 55.20 5,000 – 8,000 0.30 – 0.45
Silty Sand 10.34 – 17.25 1,500 – 2,500 0.20 – 0.40
Sand and Gravel 69.00 – 172.50 10,000 – 25,000 0.15 – 0.35
Soft Clay 2.07 – 5.18 300 -,750
Medium Clay 5.18 – 10.35 750 – 1,500 0.20 – 0.50
Stiff Clay 10.35 – 24.15 1,500 – 3,500
ELASTIC SETTLEMENT (FOR FLEXIBLE FOUNDATION)
ELASTIC SETTLEMENT (FOR RIGID FOUNDATION)
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

When a saturated soil is loaded externally,

GL

SATURATED CLAY

the water is squeezed out of the soil and the soil shrinks, over a
long time may be up to several years depending upon the
permeability of the soil and this whole phenomena is called
consolidation
 CONCEPT OF CONSOLIDATED SETTLEMENT

As the time passes, the water comes out of the soil voids
and so the volume of soil decreases, this is the cause of
the settlement.
The settlement is directly
Initial State Final State
proportional to the
decrease in volume of
Water soil = the volume of
Water
squeezed out water.
Soil Soil

+
Squeezed
Water
water
 CONSOLIDATED SETTLEMENT EQUATION
* Consolidation settlement occurs in cohesive soils due to the expulsion of the
water from the voids.
* Because of the soil permeability the rate of settlement may varied from soil to
another.
* Also the variation in the rate of consolidation settlement depends on the
boundary conditions.
SConsolidation = Sc(primary) + Ss(secondary)

Primary Consolidation (Se)

- Volume change is due to reduction in pore water pressure
- Settlement due to expulsion of pore water.

Secondary Consolidation (Ss)

- Volume change is due to the rearrangement of the soil particles
- Settlement due to plastic adjustment of soil skeletons

(No pore water pressure change, Δu = 0, occurs after the primary consolidation)
 CONSOLIDATED SETTLEMENT EQUATION
Primary Consolidated Settlement:
B. Over Consolidated Clays
A. Normally Consolidated Clays 1. When Po + ∆P < Pc
Cs H P + ∆P
Sc = log ( o )
1 + eo Po
Cc H P + ∆P
Sc = log ( o )
1 + eo Po
Where:
Cs = swell index
Where: = ranges 1/5 to 1/10 of Cc
Cc = Compression Index Pc = pre-consolidation pressure
= 0.009 (LL – 10)
eo = in situ void ratio 2. When Po + ∆P > Pc
Po = Average effective
stress at the middle of clay layer Cs H P
Sc = log ( c ) +
∆P = Average increase of 1 + eo Po
effective stress on clay layer Cc H P + ∆P
H = thickness of clay layer log ( o )
1 + eo Pc
 CONSOLIDATED SETTLEMENT EQUATION
Primary Consolidated Settlement:
 CONSOLIDATED SETTLEMENT EQUATION
Secondary Consolidated Settlement:

Ss = Ca’ H log ( t2 )
t1

Ss = secondary settlement
Where: H = thickness of clay layer
Ca t1 = time for completion of primary
Ca’ =
1 + ep settlement
t2 = time after completion of primary
∆e
Ca =
t
settlement
log ( 2 )
t1 Ca = secondary compression index
Ep = eo - ∆e ep = void ratio at the end of primary
consolidation
Po + ∆P
∆e = Cc log (
Po
) ∆e = change of void ratio
eo = in situ void ratio
 TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION

The time for consolidation to occur can be predicted.

Sometimes consolidation can take years. This is especially
true in saturated clays because their hydraulic
conductivity is extremely low, and this causes the water
to take an exceptionally long time to drain out of the soil.
While drainage is occurring, the pore water pressure is
greater than normal because it is carrying part of the
applied stress (as opposed to the soil particles).
 TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION EQUATION

Cv t
Tv =
H2dr

Where:
Hdr – average height of specimen during consolidation for
specimens drained only on one side
Hdr – one half the average height of specimen during consolidation
if the specimen is drained at both top and bottom
Tv – time factor
Cv – Coefficient of consolidation
AVERAGE DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION WITH TIME FACTOR, Tv
CALCULATION OF SETTLEMENT UNDER A FOUNDATION LOAD

ASSUMING THAT THE PRESSURE INCREASE VARIES PARABOLICALLY, USING SIMPSONS’S

RULE WE CAN ESTIMATE THE VALUE OF THE AVERAGE STRESS INCREASE:
EXAMPLE NO. 1

A SOIL PROFILE IS SHOWN BELOW.

IF A UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
IS APPLIED AT THE GROUND
SURFACE, WHAT IS THE SETTLEMENT
OF THE CLAY LAYER CAUSED BY
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION IF:
A. THE CLAY IS NORMALLY
CONSOLIDATED
B. THE PRECONSOLIDATION
PRESSURE IS 200 KPA.
C. THE PRECONSOLIDATION
PRESSURE IS 150 KPA.
USE CS = 1/5 CC
EXAMPLE NO. 2
EXAMPLE NO. 3
EXAMPLE NO. 4

CALCULATE THE SETTLEMENT OF THE 3

M –THICK CLAY LAYER THAT WILL
RESULT FROM THE LOAD CARRIED BY
A 1.5-M SQUARE FOOTING. THE CLA
IS NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED. USE
SIMPSON’S RULE TO CALCULATE THE
AVERAGE STRESS INCREASE OF THE
EFFECTIVE PRESSURE IN THE CLAY
LAYER.