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Chapter 7
Correlational Research
Objective 2.1
The Process
Participant and instrument selection
Minimum of 30 subjects
Instruments must be valid and reliable
Higher validity and reliability requires smaller samples
Lower validity and reliability requires larger samples
Design and procedures
Collect data on two or more variables for each
subject
Data analysis
Compute the appropriate correlation coefficient
Objectives 2.2 & 2.3
Correlation Coefficients
A correlation coefficient identifies the
size and direction of a relationship
Size/magnitude
Ranges from 0.00 – 1.00
Direction
Positive or negative
Objective 3.5
Correlation Coefficients
Interpreting the direction of correlations
Direction
Positive
High scores on the predictor are associated with high
scores on the criterion
Low scores on the predictor are associated with low
scores on the criterion
Negative
High scores on the predictor are associated with low
scores on the criterion
Low scores on the predictor are associated with high
scores on the criterion
Positive or negative does not mean good or bad
Objective 3.3
Correlation Coefficients
Interpreting the size and direction of
correlations using the general rule
+.95 is a strong positive correlation
+.50 is a moderate positive correlation
+.20 is a low positive correlation
-.26 is a low negative correlation
-.49 is a moderate negative correlation
-.95 is a strong negative correlation
Which of the correlations above is the
strongest, the first or last?
Objective 3.3 & 3.5
Correlation Coefficients
Scatterplots
Graphical presentations of correlations
Example of predicting from an attitude
scale – EX 1 – to an achievement test –
EX 2
Predictor variable - EX1 - is on the
horizontal axis
Criterion variable - EX 2 - is on the vertical
axis
Objective 3.4
An Example of a Scatterplot
50.00 Linear Regression
ex2 = 11.23 + 0.72 * ex1
R-Square = 0.66
45.00
40.00
ex2
35.00
30.00
Objective 3.4
ex1
Correlation Coefficients
Common variance
Definition
The extent to which variables vary in a systematic manner
Interpreted as the percentage of variance in the criterion
variable explained by the predictor variable
Computation
The squared correlation coefficient - r2
Examples
If r = .50 then r = .25
2
by the predictor
If r = .70 then r = .49
2
by the predictor
Objective 6.1
Types of Correlation Coefficients
The type of correlation coefficient depends on the
measurement level of the variables
Pearson r - continuous predictor and criterion variables
Math attitude and math achievement
Spearman rho – ranked or ordinal predictor and criterion
variables
Rank in class and rank on a final exam
Phi coefficient – dichotomous predictor and criterion
variables
Gender and pass/fail status on a high stakes test
See Table 7.2
1.0000
Linear Regression
fp = 0.39 + 0.01 * ex1
R-Square = 0.80
0.9000
fp
0.8000
0.7000
ex1
Objective 8.4
An Example of a Curvilinear Relationship
100.00 LLR Smoother
75.00
score
50.00
25.00
0.00
study
Objective 8.4
Factors that Influence Correlations
Sample size
The larger the sample the higher the likelihood of
a high correlation
Analysis of subgroups
If the total sample consists of males and females each
gender represents a subgroup
Results across subgroups can be different because they
are being obscured by the analysis of the data for the
total sample
Reduces the size of the sample
Potentially reduces variation in the scores
Objective 9.1
Factors that Influence Correlations
Variation
The greater the variation in scores the
higher the likelihood of a strong correlation
The lower the variation in scores the
higher the likelihood of a weak correlation
Attenuation
Correlation coefficients are lower when the
instruments being used have low reliability
A correction for attenuation is available
Objectives 9.2 & 9.3
Prediction Studies
Three purposes
Facilitates decisions about individuals to
help a selection decision
Tests variables believed to be good
predictors of a criterion
Determines the predictive validity of an
instrument
Objective 11.1
Prediction Studies
Single and multiple predictors
Linear regression - one predictor and one
criterion
Y’ = a + bX
r2
Multiple regression – more than one
predictor and one criterion
Y’ = a + bX1 + bX2 + … + bXi
r2 or the coefficient of determination
Objective 11.4
Conducting a Prediction Study
Identify a set of variables
Limit to those variables logically related to the criterion
Identify a population and select a sample
Identify appropriate instruments for measuring each
variable
Ensure appropriate levels of validity and reliability
Collect data for each instrument from each subject
Typically data is collected at different points in time
Compute the results
The multiple regression coefficient
Objective 13.2
Other Correlation Analyses
Cannonical correlation
An extension of multiple regression in which more
than one predictor variable and more than one
criterion variable are used
Factor analysis
A correlational analysis used to take a large
number of variables and group them into a smaller
number of clusters of similar variables called
factors
Objectives 13.3 & 13.4
A Checklist of Questions
Was the correct correlation coefficient
used?
Is the validity and reliability of the
instruments acceptable?
Is there a restricted range of scores?
How large is the sample?