Electrotechnics and

Electrical Machines
Activities
A. Course: 28h → examination : E
- theory : 6 questions (30 min. without documents)
- applications : 4 problems (60 min. with documents)

B. Laboratory activity : 28h (14h) → test : L

Final evaluation : (E+L+B)/2, (2E+L+B)/3

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 1/24

 Electrotechnics and
Electrical Machines
Industrial applications of electromagnetism
o Basic electrical & magnetic phenomena
o Laws of electromagnetism & applications
o DC circuits & Kirchhoff’s laws
o Single phase & three phase AC circuits
o AC and DC motors

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 1/24

 References
1. R. Morar, A. Iuga, E. Man, V. Neamtu, L. Dascalescu.
Electrotehnica si Masini Electrice. Institutul Politehnic
Cluj-Napoca, 1991.
2. R. Morar, E. Man, V. Neamtu, L. Dascalescu, A. Iuga.
Electrotehnica si masini electrice. Probleme. Institutul
Politehnic Cluj-Napoca, 1987.
3. A. Samuila. Masini si actionari electrice cu turatie
variabila. Editura Mediamira, Cluj-Napoca, 1998.
1. R. Morar, Gh. Mindru, A. Iuga. Electrotehnica si Masini
Electrice. Lucrari practice. Institutul Politehnic Cluj-
Napoca, 1978.
2. R. Morar, L. Dascalescu, A. Iuga, V. Neamtu, E. Man.
Electrotehnica si Masini Electrice. Lucrari practice.
Institutul Politehnic Cluj-Napoca, 1985.
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 1/24
 Electric charge
Electric charge is a physical property of
matter that causes it to experience a force
when near other electrically charged matter

elementary charge: e- = - 1.602·10-19 C

o positive charged body – has lost electrons
o positive charge – attracted by negative and
repelled by positive charge
o negative charged body – has gained electrons
onegative charge – attracted by positive and
repelled by negative charge
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 2/24
 Electric charge

Electrification by friction
(triboelectric effect) glass +++++
glass + resin rubbed F
together and then F
separated, -----
resin
will attract each other
Triboelectric series
+ -
nylon glass quartz PS resin PVC

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 3/24

Electric Field

Q q F = q·E
+
test
field charge
source

E – electric field strength [E] = V/m

F – electric field force
[D] = C/m2
D = ε0·E – electric
induction ε0 = 1/(4π·9·10 9) F/m
(electric displacement)
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 4/24
 Electric Field Lines. Coulomb’s Law
r
Electric field
q1 F12 F21 q2 lines equation:
- +
E X dl = 0
dl
E dl E
field line

Coulomb’s Law r E
q+
F12 = F21= q1·q2/(4πε0r2)
F12 = q1·E2 >> E2 = q2/(4πε0r2)
2 E = q·r/(4πε r 3)
F21 = q2·E1 >> E1 = q1/(4πε0r ) 0
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 5/24
Coulomb’s Law. Applications

q1 = 1 pC
q1 q2
F12 F21 q2 = 2 pC
- + F12 = F21 = ?
d = 1 mm

F12 = F21 = q1·q2/(4πε0r2) = 2·10-24/(4πε0·10-6) = 2·10-8 N

spheres, 2r = 100 μm Fg = ρVg = ρ·(4πr3/3)·g

ρ = 1300 kg/m3 (PVC) Fg = 1300·4π·(5·10-
5)3·9.81/3
F12/Fg = ? Fg = 6.8·10-9 N
F12/Fg = 2·10-8/6.8·10-9 = 3
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 6/24
 Electric Voltage. Electric Potential
The voltage between two points of a path is
expressed as the line integral of the electric
field between the two points.

+ B A
+
dl α
E dl
α
P
A E
UAB = ∫Edl = V A = ∫Edl = ∫Edl·cosα
∫Edl·cosα U = V - V [V] = V
AB A B
[U] = V
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 7/24
 Electric polarization
When a dielectric is placed in an external
electric field its molecules gain electric dipole
moment and the dielectric is said to be
polarized
Electric dipole moment

+q
+ u
-q
electric -
dipole d
p
electric polarization effects on p = q·d·u [p] = C·m
a material in an electric field
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 8/24
 Electric polarization
Polarization density: P = dp/dV [P] = C/m2

Polarization law: P = ε0·χe·E

χe – electric susceptibility
Relation between D, E and P

D = ε0E + P = ε0E + ε0·χeE = ε0(1 + χe)E

1 + χe = εr - relative permittivity
D = ε 0 εr E D = εE [D] = C/m2

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 9/24

 Electric capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors
separated by an electrical insulator (dielectric)

U
+q
+ + + + + + + + + +
εr
- - - - - - - - - -
-q

Capacitance a typical electrolytic

capacitor
C = q/U [C] = F C = 150 μF, U = 400 V

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 10/24

Electric capacitors

C = 2πε0εr·l/ln(R2/R1)

(εr)
C = 4πε0εr/
C = ε0εr A/d (1/R1-1/R2)

WC = (1/2)·q·U = (1/2)·C·U2 = (1/2)·q2/C [J]

wC = WC/V = (1/2)·ε0εrE2 [J/m3]
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 11/24
 Electric current
K
q1 q2 q1+q2 = q1’+q2’
V1 + + V2 V1’ = V2’

i = Δq/Δt = dq/dt
q1’ K q2’ [i] = A
V1’ + + V2’

The electric current is defined to be the rate of

which charges pass through a cross-sectional
area of the conductor
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 12/24
Current density
vdΔt
+ A
+ dA + ++ +
q
+ v
J
+
+ + -+ d
+ +
+ +
i
n = number of charge carriers
A
per unit of volume
q = charge of each carrier
i = ∫JdA vd = drift speed (speed of charge
[J] = A/m2 carriers)
Δq = qnΔV = qnAvdΔt
J = qnvd i = Δq/Δt = qnAvd
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 13/24
 Ohm’s law
In a material the current density J is linearly
dependent on the external electric field E

J = σ·E
σ – material conductivity [σ] = S/m

E = ρ·J
ρ – material resistivity [ρ] = Ωm

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 14/24

Ohm’s law
uAB = VA – VB =
uAB
∫E·dl = E·lAB
J A E uAB = ρ·J·lAB
A B
ρ (J = i/A)
lAB
uAB = ρ· (i/A)·lAB

uAB = i·ρ·lAB/A = i·RAB

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 15/24

Ohm’s law
Conductor resistance : RAB = ρ·lAB/A
R = ρ·l/A [R] = Ω ρ = ρ0(1 + αT)

Macroscopic version of the Ohm’s law

u = R·i
Conductivity of some conductive materials:
Silver (Ag): σ = 6.3·107 S/m, α = 0.0038 1/°C
Copper (Cu): σ = 5.8·107 S/m, α = 0.0039 1/°C
Aluminium (Al): σ = 3.5·107 S/m, α = 0.0039 1/°C
Iron (Fe): σ = 1.0·107 S/m, α = 0.0045 1/°C
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 16/24
 DC circuits
DC = Direct Current – unidirectional flow of electric charges

● DC supplies → E (EMF = electromotive force)

● Resistors → R (resistance)
● Branch – part of the electric circuit R
E

without connections
I1 I2

● Node – junction point of at least 3 branches I4

2 I3

1
● Loop – closed path in the electric Rk Ek
n m
circuit

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 17/24

 DC circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s current law
The algebraic sum of all the currents into a node must be
equal to zero Σ(Ik) = 0
The sum of the currents entering the node
must be equal to the sum of the currents exiting the node
I1
I2
Σ(Iin) = Σ(Iout) I3
I4

I1 – I2 –I3 +I4 = 0 I1 + I4 = I2 + I3

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 18/24

 DC circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s voltage law

The algebraic sum of all the voltage drops ΔU across a

closed loop must be equal to zero

Σ(ΔU) = 0
The algebraic sum of the EMF within the
closed loop must be equal to the algebraic sum of the
voltage drops of all resistors within the same loop

Σ(Ek) = Σ(RkIk)
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 19/24
DC circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s voltage law

E1
R1
I1
I2

R2
E1 + E2 - E3 = R4
travel direction
R1I1 + R2I2 - R3I3 - R4I4 E2
I4

I3 R3
E3

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 20/24

DC circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws
Application

Kirchhoff’s current low: R1 R2

I1 + I4 = I6 I5
I1 I2
I2 + I5 = I1 E5
I3 + I6 = I2
I4 I3
Kirchhoff’s voltage law: R5
R1I1 + R5I5 – R4I4 = E5 R4 R3
R2I2 + R3I3 – R5I5 = -E5
R6I6 + R4I4 – R3I3 = E6 E6
R6
I6

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 21/24

DC circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws
Application

R1 = 2Ω
R2 = 2Ω
R3 = 4Ω R1
I1
E1 = 20 V
E2 = 10 V E1 I3
UR3 = ? I2
R3
I1 = I2 + I3
E1 = R1I1 + R3I3 E2
E2 = R2I2 - R3I3
R2

Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 22/24

Joule Lenz law (Joule effect)

I I P =R·I2
DC P =U·I
U U R
circuit P = U2/R
[P] = W

The rate of energy loss (heat) generated by a

constant current in any part of an electrical
circuit is proportional to the resistance and
to the square of the current
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 23/24
Joule Lenz law (Joule effect)

I P =U·I
E U U=E
P = E·I

U = 230 V U = 230 V
R = 80 Ω I P = 1.5 kW I
(d = 1.38 mm)
I=? U R I=? U R
P=? R=?
J=?
Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Constructii de Masini 24/24