Environment Management System

Dr. A. K. Garg
NICMAR

Course Objective:

To understand various issues of the environment

To study the relevant regulatory framework,
To enable economic growth while ensuring resource sustainability.
1
Pollution Control Boards --- for projects clearance before setting
Central Board for the prevention & Control of Water Pollution
State Board “ “ “ “ “ “
Water & Air pollution Acts:
In pursuance of the recommendation of the Stockhalm Conference in
1972, Govt. of India passed independent legislation on wter pollution
and Air pollution.
• The water (prevention & Control of pollution) Act, 1974
• The Water (prevention & Control of pollution) Rules, 1975
• The Water (prevention & Control of pollution) Cess Act, 1977
• The Water (prevention & Control of pollution) Cess Rules, 1978
• Air (prevention & Control of pollution) Act, 1981
• Air (prevention & Control of pollution) Rules, 1982
The Water (prevention & Control of pollution) Cess Act, 1977
An Act to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by
persons carrying on certain industries and by local authorities, with a view to
augment the resources of the Central Board & the State Boards for the
prevention & Control of water pollution constituted under the water (Prevention
2
& Control of Pollution) Act 1974.
Govt. of India have given great emphasis on the prevention of
environmental pollution because it is one of the biggest hazards not
only to human existence but also to the existence of all the living
beings. Increase in population, fast development of industries &
urbanization have resulted in the increase of pollution.

Indian Standard Institutions(ISI) now BIS : has published large

number of Codes on the treatment methods of various types of
Industrial wastes.

3
What
is
Environment
The land, air, water, all living and nonliving things surrounding us is
our environment. This will include open fields, mountains, forest
covers, deserts, snow covers, seas, rivers, lakes, wells, springs,
atmosphere and all other living and non-living things.
It means surrounding in which any organization or living system
operates. It includes air, water, land, Natural resources, human beings,
plants (flora), animals (fauna) and their interrelationships.
It is desirable that the environment where we live in, should be safe,
healthy and attractive one.

4
What
is
Pollution

Pollution refers to the presence of substances in air, water and land,

whether they result from human activity or occur naturally which
have adverse effects on environment.

5
Ecosystem:

An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms

(biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical
(abiotic) factors of the environment.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service defines an ecosystem as a geographic

area and all its living components (e.g., people, plants, animals, and
microorganisms), their physical surroundings (e.g., soil, water, and air), and
the natural cycles that sustain them (e.g., precipitation, drought, fire).

An ecosystem is a complete community of living organisms and the

nonliving materials of their surroundings. Thus, its components include
plants, animals, and microorganisms; soil, rocks, and minerals; as well as
surrounding water sources and the local atmosphere. The size of ecosystems
varies tremendously. An ecosystem could be an entire rain forest, covering a
geographical area larger than many nations, or it could be a puddle or a
backyard garden. Even the body of an animal could be considered an
ecosystem, since it is home to numerous microorganisms.
6
Within each ecosystem, there are habitats which may also vary in size. A
habitat is the place where a population lives. A population is a group of
living organisms of the same kind living in the same place at the same
time. All of the populations interact and form a community. The
community of living things interacts with the non-living world around it
to form the ecosystem. The habitat must supply the needs of organisms,
such as food, water, temperature, oxygen, and minerals. If the
population's needs are not met, it will move to a better habitat.

a) Ecosystem support life. Without the resources and services

provided by ecosystem, human life would not be possible.
b) It is capable of self-maintenance and self-regulation.
c) Ecosystem is not a static system. Though there is natural tendency
for ecosystem to remain in a state of equilibrium.

Human intervention sometimes produces changes in ecosystem that

result in imbalance.
7
Our country has a variety of ecosystems. We have ecosystem like
Marine-ecosystem, indo-gangetic plains which have a very high
productivity potential. we have desert ecosystems which have very
high temperature and also ecosystems with very low
temperature(Ladakh). We have some area with very low rainfall and
others with extremely high rainfall. We have ecosystems such as
mountains of Himalayas and wetlands. Every ecosystem has limits in
terms of various population it can support.

A detailed study of ecosystem therefore, is of paramount importance

for understanding environmental management

8
Ecology :
Ecology is a branch of biology. Ecology is the scientific study of the pattern
of relationship between living organism and their environments. The living
organisms(biotic) and their nonliving (abiotic) environment are inseparably
interrelated and interact upon each other.
Ecology proceeds at three levels:
(1) the individual organism (2) the population(consisting of individuals of the
same species or a group of individuals of any one kind of organisms) and (3)
the community (consisting of numbers of populations i.e. all types of
populations occupying a given area. ).

With the increase in concentration of population in towns and cities, the waste
products surpass beyond the limits and the air, water and soil become polluted.
The bio-geo-chemical cycles of nature will get disturbed, which is known as
Ecological Disorders.

9
Habitat :
Habitat refers to place where an organism, population and community
lives. The major habitats are land, water (both fresh water and marine)
and air (trees).

A habitat is the place where a population lives. A population is a group of

living organisms of the same kind living in the same place at the same time.
All of the populations interact and form a community.

Management : 1) Awareness
2) Assessment
3) Action (Mitigation)
4) Review

10
Awareness of
degradation of
the Environment
By the mid, 1960s, some scientists in the USA were sounding warning about the
possibility of climate change due to increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere
resulting from burning of fossil fuels.
By the end of 1960, warnings, conferences & media attention had created a
dramatic change. In the US, this climate of thought made a law – NEPA (National
Environmental Policy Act).
On 1 January. 1970. the terms Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) came into existence through National
Environment Policy Act (NEPA) of USA. One of the three major provisions in the
act is to establish the EIS process. The EIS should include a description of detailed
environmental Impact of the proposed action, unavoidable adverse impacts which
would result should the action take place, possible alternatives, and a discussion of
short-term versus long-term advantages of the proposal.
11
The purpose of EIS is to determine before implementation, 1) the
identification, 2) analysis & 3) critical evaluation of the likely
environment impact.

The methodologies for impact identification are

(1) Ad-hoc
(2) Check list
(3) Environmental Impact Matrix (ElM)

A comprehensive analysis of the environmental impact of a proposed

project is necessary to understand physical affects and biological effect
and their influence on social, physiological and aesthetic concerns.

Another salient feature of NEPA was its emphasis on providing the

public with an opportunity to influence the implementation of a
development project. The act also specified that the project's proponents
must provide information on any adverse Environmental effects of the
proposed action, alternatives to the proposed action, and information on 12
any irreversible effects.
If the latter half of the 1960s can be called the period of environmental
awakening, then the 1970s was an era of response and action. Many
countries U.S., Canada, Japan & EU enacted legislation to control
specific problems such as air or water pollution or soil erosion. A feature
of the 1970’s and 1980’s was the introduction of the environmental
legislation at the national and international level.

The most influential were the

United Nations Conferences on human Environment in Stockholm
(1972), Population (1974), and Human Settlements (1976).

United Nations Environment Program(UNEP) was created to promote

environmentally sound development-

-- development which will maintain an improved economic progress

without damaging the environment and natural resource bases upon
which future development depends as, environment and economic
13
development are very closely linked.
UNEP conduct the following program :

(i) Protection of the atmosphere.

(ii) Maintenance of fresh water quality.
(iii) Protection of ocean and coastal areas.
(iv) Protection of land resources.
(v) Combating deforestation and desertification and
(vi) Conservation of biological diversity.

Now the two major criteria i.e. the project should maximize economic
return, and it should be technically feasible are no longer considered
adequate to decide the desirability or even the viability of the project.
It is now widely recognized that the development project designed for
economic benefits may produce unanticipated undesirable
consequences as well which may directly or indirectly nullify these
benefits completely. To tackle this problem Environmental
Impacts(EI) of the development project should be assessed
14
Environmental impact assessment:The need for carrying out an EIA
has been accepted in many countries including US, Canada, Japan,
Australia and several European countries.
The EIA process has been evolving since the early 1970s. At that time
the emphasis was on measurable physical factors, particularly those for
which there were standards and codes (e.g. air quality, water quality,
solid waste disposal). After a few years, EIA began to include biological
and ecological factors, even though they were difficult to quantify. More
recently, EIA were broadened even further to include other factors like
employment opportunities, cultural impacts, recreational factors, etc., so
that trade-offs among socio-economic and environmental factors could
be evaluated.
The EIA system has been welcomed in principle by many scientists,
engineers, citizens group and others. At present, the environmental
impact assessment process is being redefined to integrate bio-physical
impact, social and community impacts as well as technical & Economic
impacts. 15
In India, the EIA requirement for major projects commenced in the
early eighties. The: EIA is prepared by the project proponent for new
projects as well as for extension/modernization proposals for existing
projects, which are expected to change the ecosystem around the
project site. The report is submitted to the Department of Environment
for scrutiny. The project is cleared with or without hearings,
discussions and necessary site visits or rejected.

The EIA studies consist of literature research and field studies

primarily to ascertain the baseline conditions and finally impact
assessment using mathematical and computer aided techniques. The
areas of study generally cover Land use, Water use, Socioeconomics,
Geology Soil characteristics, Hydrology, Water Quality, Meteorology,
Air Quality, Ecology and Noise. The study comprises of the following
five stages:

16
(i) Determination of baseline conditions or defining the existing
environment with respect to each of the above parameters.

(ii) Identification of the different components of the project that would

have an effect on one or several aspects of the environment.

(iii) Estimation of the quantity and characteristics(quality) of the

polluting discharge of such components.

(iv) Assessment of the impacts of such polluting discharges on different

aspects of the environment.

(v) Formulation & recommendation of mitigation measures necessary to

control the adverse environmental impacts to acceptable levels.

17
1. Preliminary Studies
2. Project Features
3. Impact assessment
4. Impact on Air Quality
5. Impact on Water Quality
6. Impact on Ecosystem
7. Impact on Socio-economics
8. Impact on noise
9. Mitigation measures
10. Conclusion

18
Major global concern of the 1980s & 1990s was the increasing
concentration of CO2. Because of this both Acid Rains, Global
warning and Ozone depletion is now a very serious global problem.

19
Global Warming
Introduction
Environmental problems like air, water and land pollution or
municipal waste disposal exist in every country. The nations have
identified the causes for these problems and would continue to deal
with them depending upon how severe these are and how serious is
commitment for their abatement. Today, we have a fairly good
information about environmental problems. The public being
conscious of these problems wants the governments and international
agencies to become actively involved in tackling them. The citizens
are willing to cooperate in the environmental clean up process
because they have realized that the risks arising out of environmental
damage are real and these pose serious challenge to the lifestyle and
their living standards.
Two global environmental problems are:
(i) Global Warming
(ii) Ozone Depletion 20
In general, developing countries are more concerned with short-term
problems of water resources, air pollution, land degradation,
deforestation, etc. The developed countries, on the other hand, are
taking more interest in global environmental issues like global
warming and ozone depletion.

Global Warming:
Global warming means gradual increase in world temperatures
caused by greenhouse gases (GHGs), The main greenhouse gas is
carbon dioxide (CO2); others are nitrous oxide, CFCs
(chlorofllurocarbons), methane and some organochloride compounds
like perflurocarbons (PFCs) and sulphuric fluoride. GHGs come
from various sources, mostly from burning of fossil fuels, These
gases trap the sun's rays in the earth’s atmosphere causing the
temperature to rise resulting in what is known as green house effect
or global warning and subsequent change in climate. Hurricanes may
be result of such a change. deforestation also is responsible because
21
the forest cover that existed earlier would have absorbed
CO2 .Scientist believe that there has been 25% increase in CO2
concentration during the last 100 years and it is expected that this
will double in the next 50years. Which will further raise the
temperature of earth by 3-5 ‘C. If warning continues, coastal areas
would see a rise in the sea level. If temperature rise further 3-5’C, sea
levels may rise by 0.5ft to 5ft.because of melting of mountain
glaciers and expansion of Oceans. This would result in Islands like
Maldives getting submerged and many Coastal cities getting flooded,
forcing the people to leave their homes. Global warming will also
result in hot summers it mean more consumption of electricity. It
would also affect agricultural production and ecological balance.

To combat Global warming, at the earth summit in 1992 held at Rio

de Janeiro, 153 nations signed the ‘Convention on Climate change’
and committed themselves to reduce emissions of CO2 and other
GHGs. by finding out alternative sources of renewable energy, better
22
energy management system and to reverse deforestation.
It is a documented fact that burning coal produces twice as much
CO2 per unit of heat as natural gas. It is therefore, important to
control CO2 production from burning of coal which can be possible
by use of alternative source of energy like solar and wind power.
USA with 6% of world population contributes 25% of world CO2
emissions.

23
 Following steps have been suggested by experts;
(1) Cleaning up coal for which technology exists. This can lead to
lesser pollution. Also, conversion of coal to gas is possible. This
would further reduce pollution.
(2) More use of natural gas than coal because natural gas contains
only half the carbon of coal and no sulphur.
(3) Renewable sources of energy would ultimately tackle the
problem of CO2 emission and pollution. Wind power and solar
energy are obvious choices. These sources produce little or no
pollution and involve no safety risks.
(4) Manufacturing fuel efficient vehicles is another step.
(5) Deforestation Reversal. This is a major step to reduce CO2
concentration. It is possible to reclaim more land to plant more trees
but requires help from social, political and financial institutions.

24
GREENHOUSE GASES (GHGs)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
. Main greenhouse gas.
. Arises from burning of fossil fuels.
.Levels increase as a consequence of deforestation.

Methane (CH4)
. About 20% of greenhouse effect is due to methane.
.Arises from
(i) rice paddies;
(ii) wetlands;
(iii) fecal matter from cattle;
(iv) burning of wood;
(v) landfills.

25
Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs)
. Responsible for about 15% of the greenhouse effect.
. Thousand times more effective (heat absorbing) than CO2,
. Reaches the atmosphere from
(i) refrigeration;
(ii) air-conditioning industry;
(iii) foam packing industries.

Nitrous Oxide (NO2 )

. Responsible for 5% of greenhouse effect.
.Arises from
(i) coal burning;
(ii) biomass burning;
(iii) breakdown of chemical fertilizers.

26
Kyoto Protocol
The first Conference of Parties (COP1) was held in Berlin in 1995
Second (COP2)was held in Geneva in 1996
Third (COP3) was held in Kyoto in December 1997 to finalize a
protocol on GHG emission. At Kyoto conference, US declared that
they would stabilize US emission to 1990 levels by 2010 whereas EU,
G77 and China, demanded reduction by 15% below 1990 level.
Finally, Kyoto was a big success for US, and a bargain for USA in
which trading mechanisms that would help it to take the levels below
1990 levels were accepted by other groups. USA signed the Protocol.
Though developing countries were not obliged to reduce GHG
emission within a specific time frame, USA insisted that it would ratify
the Kyoto Protocol if developing countries agree to do so.

27
In this Conference a scheme called Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) was evolved. CDM is a way of financing equipment,
bringing investment from developed nations for infrastructure, water,
forest conservation, etc. for participating developing countries.
Through CDM developing countries would receive investment
which the developed country will receive credit for share of
environment protection or emission in carbon emission achieved.
The developed countries after having earned the credits can bank
them for future use in subsequent commitment period.
The Centre for Science and Environment, a NGO based in New
Delhi, in a report on global warming published in 1990, argued for
equal per capita emission rights to the atmosphere. The UK
Government appointed Royal Commission on Environmental
Pollution which recommends that effective climate protocol will
require emission quotas to be allocated to nations on a simple and
equal per capita basis. USA opposes this concept.
28
It should be noted that industry in USA feels that Kyoto Protocol
would be very expensive for them. The suggestion that Kyoto
Protocol could be a reality without US is impractical. At this ,
juncture both the developing and developed countries have criticized
the move of US to abandon the protocol. Yet there is a hope that US
will reconsider its decision, though the talks on Kyoto Protocol held
in Hague in Nov., 2000 resulted in deadlock between US and EU. US
president asserts reduction targets should be fixed for China and
India despite the fact that the latter contribute very little to emissions
in comparison to USA.

29
POST KYOTO
Forget that scientists have been warning about the growing levels of
CO2 on the planet. Forget that companies like Dupont have already
reduced their emissions of greenhouse gases by 50 per cent, and intend
to reduce them further. Forget that a number of auto manufacturers are
investing in R&D to manufacture low pollution cars. Forget that several
other companies like IBM, United Technologies are committed to
reducing their greenhouse gas emissions by a quarter in the next 10
years. Forget that 38 Industrialized countries have under the Kyoto
accord, agreed to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases by 2012
to 5.2 percent below the levels in 1990. The President of the United
States says CO2 is not a pollutant. George W Bush has apologized for
having named the gas a pollutant in the past. He has withdrawn his
proposal of capping the CO2 emitted by power utilities using coal. He
has denounced the Kyoto accord, and announced that the US has no
intention to comply with the treaty.

30
Bush supporters argue, what every class eight student knows, that
CO2 is essential for plants. Plants absorb CO2 . With the help of
sunlight, plants break CO2 in to carbon and oxygen, and release
oxygen back into atmosphere. Without CO2 and sunlight there would
be no greenery on our plant. Hence, CO2 is good for us. Surely, if
you and I learnt this when we were in school, scientists,
environmentalists, diplomats and industrialists cannot be oblivious of it.
True, as Mr. Bush argues, there is incomplete “Scientific knowledge
of the causes of and solutions to global climate change”. But the issue
is not whether CO2 is a pollutant or not. In small doses, CO2 is
essential for life on the planet, in large quantities it is a pollutant. So
the issue is how much Carbon can the US ecosystem absorb. The Us
is the biggest producer of greenhouse gasses in the world producing
about a fourth of the total. The issue is whether the US absorbs all the
CO2 it releases. As the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in
Germany shows, it does not. Based on the data for the period 1980 to
1993, the study finds that during droughts, US vegetation emits,31 and
not absorb, CO2.
Ozone Depletion :
Ozone depletion is another global problem that attracted the attention
in 1980’s. Ozone layer in Stratosphere forms a shield. Ultraviolet
rays arising from sun would reach the earth if there are Ozone holes.
This lead to skin cancer and damage to eyes in Human beings. In
plants, the process of photosynthesis- the process by which plants
manufacture their food- is effected. Ultraviolet radiation can penetrate
the surface of the oceans with the result that the marine life and the
entire food chain is affected. It is evidence that ultraviolet radiation
can reach the depth of 90ft. Small plants and animals living in sea get
killed by these radiation. An incident was reported in 1992 in southern
part of Chile as a result of low level of Ozone, people suffered severe
burns of skin from short exposure to sunlight. Also Cattle became
blind, trees wilted and the animals died because of starvation.
Conventions: Recently, convention on Ozone layer protection was
held in Vienna in 1985 called “Vienna Convention”. This was
followed by Montreal Protocol(1987) on substances that deplete 32
Ozone layer. It was signed by 24 countries and by 1988 signatories rose
to 35. In 1995 delegates from 75 countries met in London to sign an
accord that strengthened the provisions of Montreal Protocol.
The Ozone depleting substances : It is found that
(1) Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs) destroy the Ozone in the stratosphere.
CFCs rise through atmosphere to reach upper layer – the stratosphere
where they cause Ozone depletion. CFCs contain chlorine and
Fluorine. The most common are CFC11, CFC12, CFC22 & CFC113.
CFCs are broken down by solar radiation releasing their Chlorine
atoms which in turn break Ozone. The Chlorine atoms remain as
Chlorine even after this reaction.(Chlorine atoms therefore act as
Catalyst). Thus Chlorine atoms are capable of destroying Ozone
molecules repeatedly. A single Chlorine molecule can break up
thousands of molecule of Ozone.
(2) There is another family of compounds called Halons which contain
bromine. These compounds are 100 times more potent in destroying
Ozone than CFCs. Though CFCs when first discovered proved useful
substances especially to refrigeration industry because these are33
neither inflammable nor toxic and non-corrosive. Besides refrigeration
industry, these compounds are used as aerosol propellants, as solvent
for grease or glues, as a component of foam packaging etc.
Ozone Hole:
Ozone hole was first discovered by British Antarctic Survey in 1983
over Antarctica. It was found that levels of Ozone were dropping very
fast, though a small percentage was being replenished during fall
season. But by 1987 Ozone has dropped by considerable level. It was
also found that Ozone level were dropping in other parts of the world
too. Alarmed over such declining levels of Ozone, UNEP called a
meeting of few developed nations to consider the issue of Ozone
depletion verses CFCs and phasing out use of Ozone depleting
compounds. Initially USA resisted but later agreed to 50% reduction in
the use of these compounds by 1998. This form the basis of Montreal
Protocol(1987) on substances that deplete the Ozone layer.

34
The Montreal Protocol:
The discovery of Ozone hole became a matter of great concern because
Trade and industrial interest of many countries were involved. European
and Japanese were afraid that if there would be a total ban on the use of
CFCs, their refrigeration industry and air-conditioning would suffer.
Finally a solution was found in 1987 when 24 countries and later by
1990 most of the nations signed an agreement, the Montreal Protocol,
committing themselves to phasing out the production and use of Ozone
depleting substances mainly CFCs. The agreement stipulated freeze on
CFCs production to 1986 level by 1989 and 50% reduction by 1998. The
developing countries were given 10years grace period over the deadline
of the industrial countries. The Montreal Protocol categorized developing
countries as those with an annual per capita consumption of CFCs less
than 0.3Kg. In contrast, US per capita consumption in 1986 was 1.7Kg.
The developing countries were allowed to increase their production to
bring it up to 0.3Kg per capita between 1995-1997 and then reduce to
half by 2010.
35
India and China did not signed the protocol. They called for modification.
Montreal Protocol was amended in June 1990 at the meeting Hosted
by the British Government. It was at the same meeting that the Indian
delegation, led by Ms. Maneka Gandhi, the then minister of state for
environment, agreed in principle to sign the protocol, but only once
the ratification of the amendments was completed by the existing
members.
The amendments incorporated several of the objections raised by the
developing countries. For instance, the discriminatory clauses for
withdrawl and veto were removed; and not just imports but exports were
also banned to nations not part(who is not the member) to the protocol.
The Western nations also pledged to double their commitment to the
problem by greatly advancing the timetable for phasing out CFCs and
other substances. Amendment made in 1990 also established ‘Montreal
Protocol Multilateral Fund’ to help developing countries become less
dependent on Ozone depleting substances. In 1992, a meeting of 87
nations decided to change the phase-out deadline from 2000 to January
1996 for CFCs and January1994 for Halons. It was also agreed to
eliminate HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) – the substitutes for36CFCs
Ventilation, heating and lighting are interrelating things which are required?

Air is an essential item for men, animals and for all living beings. Fortunately,
air is a nature's gift and no efforts has to be made for getting the air from the
atmosphere all around us. Fresh air is required for maintaining a good health. If
in a room of a building, the supply of fresh air is inadequate, it will
produce headache, a sense of oppression, suffocation, sleepiness, laziness
attitude, loss of appetite and overall inability to concentrate the attention.
Therefore, it is most necessary to have proper ventilations in the buildings
and prevent the stagnation of air at any place.
The efficiency of working depends on the atmospheric temperature & pressure.
During summer when the external temperature is more than that of blood, less
food is required & the working efficiency of persons is decreased. On the other
hand during winter, to maintain the blood heat more food is required and the
secretion of urine is decreased. These all increase the overall efficiency. That is

37
why people of cold countries are more hard working than that of hot
climate. The health of people also depends on the humidity in the
atmosphere. Moist climate favours the growth of disease bacteria,
therefore it is not good for health. Similarly very dry air is also not good
for health. The moisture content in the air should suit the skin for healthy
Living.
Everybody knows that light is compulsory everywhere for the working.
Sunlight has many beneficial effects upon the health of human beings. In
cold countries people use to have sunbath for their health. The efficiency
of working also depends on the intensity of light. In dim light it becomes
difficult to work & headache starts. Similarly very bright light effects the
eyes. Sufficient & natural light is necessary for healthy conditions of
human body.
------------------ Green Building
What is ventilation: The process of removing used air by fresh air from
buildings is called ventilation in buildings. This can be done by natural
methods or artificial methods.
38
The reason for our being so much concerned about air pollution will
be evident from the fact that as an average man, will breath 22,000
times a day and take about 24 kgs of air in the process to sustain the
requirement of oxygen. From the above facts it is clearly understood
that the air in fresh and clean state must be made available to us.

39
Objects of Ventilation:

1. To remove the used air from the buildings

2. To supply Oxygen for human in the buildings
3. To remove the excessive moisture
4. To cool the body of human and remove excessive heat.
5. To prevent the suffocations
6. To cool the surrounding objects
7. To freshen the atmosphere inside the buildings

Composition of Air : The atmospheric air mainly consists of O2 & N2. But
Certain impurities are always present in the air. The composition of air is as
follows:
Constitutes % by volume

N2 78.1
O2 20.9
CO2 ,, CO , Water vapor 0.04 40
Ammonia Compounds, Suspended matters of all kinds 0.96
The purest sea or mountains contains O2 20.999% by vol.. In overcrowded
Hall it is as low as 20.65%.
CO2 is received by air mainly by combustion and respiration. The quantity of
CO2 is decreased by vegetation, rain & high winds. If the % of CO2 increase
upto 1.5 it will produce nausea, depression and headache. If 2.0 to 2.5 it will
extinguish the candle and more than 2.5 by volume causes fatal accidents.
Out of the other impurities present in the air, the CO is the most poisonous. It is
formed by the imperfect combustion of coal or carbon and cast iron stoves
produce it in considerable quantities.
O2
Combustion & Respiration :
The quantity of O2 is reduced and CO2 increased by combustion & respiration.
When coal is burnt it gives CO2,, CO & other impurities. Similarly during
respiration & breathing an average adult gives off 0.017m3/hr CO2. Each cubic
Meter of gas on burning also gives 0.017m3/hr CO2. Therefore combustion and
respiration continuously impure the atmosphere which should be continuously
freshened by proper ventilation.
Efficiency of work depends on the freshness received by ventilation, light,
suitable atmospheric temperature and humidity. 41
Systems of Ventilation :
1. Natural System
2. Artificial System
- Plenum System
- Vacuum System
- Balance System
- Air-Conditioning
A good ventilating system should have the following characteristics :
1. It should be possible to control the incoming & outgoing air from the rooms.
2. It should freshen each & every corner of the room & there should be
no stagnant pockets left.
3. It should only allow the entrance of fresh air free from dirt &
excessive moisture.
4. The maximum velocity of air should not be more than 16m/min.
5. It should draw sufficient quantity of fresh air which is necessary for
preventing stagnation.
6. It should also allow the control over the room temperature which
should not decrease or increase than that required for comfortable
42
Natural System: For ordinary building natural system of ventilation is
mostly used. In this method natural forces are used for the removal of
foul or used air and admittance of fresh air in the building through
ventilating inlets & outlets respectively.
When air is heated, it expands & rises, therefore the air which is given
off by the body, starts rising upward & is collected below the ceiling of
rooms. This can be taken out by the ventilators of properly designed
ventilation outlets. The fresh air is admitted in the building through
doors, windows or properly designed ventilation inlets. The height of the
window should be high from the floor level so that the current of wind
may not hit the sleeping.

Plenum System: This system includes

1. A filter for air
2. A heater warmed by the hot water
3. A centrifugal fan for forcing the warm air
4. A system of distributing ducts connecting every room of the building.
43
When centrifugal fan starts, it draws air through the air inlet, which is
first filtered and then heated up upto the required temperature. The fan
Forces the warm air through ducts, which reaches in all the rooms
through the openings of ducts kept in the ceilings. When air enters the
rooms, it increases the inside pressure due to which the foul air forced
out through the outlets.
This system is also used during the construction of tunnels for ventilating
them.

Vacuum System :
This system is mostly used in cinema houses, assembly halls, hotels
& other public buildings. In this system, the foul air is forced out from
the rooms or halls by means of exhaust fans due to which partial vacuum
is created in the halls and fresh air starts coming through doors, windows
and other ventilation inlets. This is very good & cheap system.

Balance system : This is combination of plenum & vacuum system.

44
Air Conditioning : The atmosphere in the modern cities and towns
contains dirt, smoke, fumes in addition to noise caused by the traffic,
industries & business area. In such atmosphere, it is necessary to get
comfort by air conditioning in which all the doors, windows &
ventilators are kept closed.
The air conditioning may be defined as the process of controlling
temperature, humidity, distribution of air and simultaneously removing
dirt, bacteria from the air. In other words, the air-conditioning is the
method of providing comfort & healthy atmosphere to increase the
efficiency.
The air-conditioning process is the development over plenum system.
Its complete cycle has the following stages:
1. Removal of dirt & other objectionable things by passing the air
through air cleaner filter or washer.
2. Cooling or heating the air by refrigerator coils or heating coils
3. Adjusting the humidity of air by adding moisture in summer &
removing moisture in winter or rainy season, by passing air through
45
Humidifier.
4. Forcing of conditioned air-through ducts by fans or pumps and
distributing it in rooms.

Lighting :
1. Sunlight or natural light
2. Reflected sun light : for basement and interior rooms
3. Artificial light

Heating: Solar heating

46
Noise Control:
Due to increase in population, number of vehicles and other sound
articles, the noise is increasing day by day in the cities. Following are the
bad effects of noise:
1. Decrease in the efficiency of the workers.
2. Interference with the normal development of the infants
3. Strain in the nervous system of the people
4. Decrease of hearing power of persons working in noisy atmosphere
5. Interference with sound sleep.
There are various sources of noise, out of which some are unavoidable.
As far as possible, the noise should be controlled. The noise of
automobiles, automobile horns, trucks, noisy brakes, loudspeakers,
unnecessary loud radio etc. should try to reduce or even to eliminate.
The measurement of noise is done by decibles. In the healthful
residential environment the noise level should be kept between 40-45
Decibles. One bricks thick wall plastered with cement mortar both sides
is good insulation for noise.
47
The noise can be prevented in entering the buildings, by their proper
design and providing sound-insulating materials. Educating of the public
to produce minimum possible sounds can also reduce sounds in the
cities. Proper enforcement of anti-noise law and coordination between
health & other organization can help in the reduction of noise.

Assignment 1 : On green Buildings

48
Air Pollution

49
COMPOSITION OF AIR

Biosphere. The largest level of biological organization is the

biosphere, that region of earth from the earth surface to the upper layer
where organisms occur. The biosphere is divided into the following
regions : -
(i) Troposphere. This is the region nearest to the earth surface in
which the temperature decreases fairly steadily from the ground
temperature to -50 to -80oC, the height of which is about 12 km.
(ii) Tropopause. The temperature curve changes the slope rather
suddenly in a narrow transition layer known as the "Tropopause",
which spreads usually 10 to 20 km.

50
(iii) Stratosphere. Above the tropopause is the stratosphere, in which
the temperature curve shows a warming trend with the increase of height.
This warming is due to absorption of solar ultraviolet radiation by ozone.
(iv) Stratopause. At the top of the stratosphere, about 50 km. height,
there is a transitional layer, that is relatively warm and not much cooler
than earth surface.
(v) Mesosphere. Above the stratopause, is the mesosphere. The height of
which starts from 50 km and extends upto 90 km from earth surface and
the temperature drops down from lower height to the top of the
mesosphere.
(vi) Mesopause. This is located around 90 km. height from earth surface
and just above the mesosphere. It is the coldest region in the biosphere
and is -100°C.
(vii) Thermosphere. Above the mesopause is the thermosphere, where,
atmospheric temperature rises very sharply. A very high temperature low
density, low pressure and absence r of biological lives are the
characteristics of thermosphere. 51
The balance between production of CO2 by animals and human
beings and its removal by the action of chlorophyll of algae and plants
to produce oxygen is nearly a balanced system. However, the
evidence is that is the last fifty or seventy years, this balance has been
slightly disturbed with an increase of CO2 of perhaps 0.5% per year.

This is probably due to the much larger scale of burning wood, coal
and oil for generation of power and other uses. The problem probably
has been compounded by the loss of green cover of trees, grasses
which has marginally reduced the capacity to regenerate oxygen
through photosynthesis. While current evidence is fairly certain about
the marginal increase of CO2 its consequences, if this should increase
substantially, can be quite grave, including increase of the earth's
surface temperature, melting of arctic and Antarctic ice and rise of
water level in the oceans by several meters, Coastal cities like
Calcutta can be wiped out by arise of the sea water level by 10 to 15
meters.
52
The slow release of halogen compounds into the atmosphere by
escape to refrigerant gases, degradation of plastics such as PVC are an
another group of problems. As they go into the atmosphere they can
react with the ozone in the upper atmosphere and reduce it to oxygen,
thus reducing the ability of the ozone layer to cut off the ultraviolet
and soft X-ray radiations from coming down to the earth's surface.

53
AIR POLLUTION CATEGORIES

Only a finite amount of air, land and water resources exist and as
population increases, the portion available for each person decreases. In
other words the rate at which pollutants are discharged into the
atmosphere in highly populated regions at times exceeds the cleansing
rate of atmosphere. This situation results in pollution of nature.

Air pollution can be broadly divided into two categories, they are (i) by
natural process and (ii) by man made. Such natural process as forest
fires, decaying vegetation, dust-storms, volcanic eruptions etc. have
always contaminated the air. The air pollution caused due to man's
industrial and domestic activities is the man made air pollution, this is
particularly noticeable in dense urban areas and near large emission
sources. Although the total global production of many gases and
particulate matter recognised as pollutants is much greater from natural
processes than from man-made activities, global distribution and
dispersion of those pollutants result in low average concentration. 54
These pollutants, by precipitation, oxidation and absorption into the
oceans and the oil, gets removed and the atmosphere can clean itself of
all " such pollutants, if sufficient time is given. On the other hand,
man-generated pollutants are usually concentrated in small geographic
regions and the rates at which they are discharged into the atmosphere
is highly populated regions at times exceeds the cleansing rate of the
atmosphere, poses the real problem.

55
It is common practice to express the quantity of a gaseous pollutants present in the air
as parts per million (ppm). Thus

1 ppm = 1 Volume of gaseous pollutants /106 Volumes (Pollutants + Air)

The weight of a pollutants is expressed at micrograms of pollutant per cubic metre of

air.

Symbolically, g/m3 =Micrograms/cubic metre

At 25°C and 760 mm Hg (1 atm) pressure the relationship between parts per million
and micrograms per cubic metre is

g /m3 = ppm x molecular weight (103)

24.5
The constant in the denominator is 24.41 at 0°C and 760 mm Hg pressure, since 1 gm-
mole of any ideal gas has a volume of 24.41litres at the specified pressure and
temperature.
This value is 24.5 due to the change in the temperature from 0°C (273°K) to 25°C
(298°K). 56
 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

Though air pollution takes place due to man-made activities and by natural means, the
direct effect of the former is comparatively much higher. The main cause of air
pollution is generally associated with man's industrial and domestic activities, this is
particularly noticeable in dense urban areas and near large emission sources. The main
sources of air pollution are:
(i) Fuel burning operation for heat and pooper generation in large steam-electric
generating plants, in residences, in hotels, clubs, hospitals, in different processing of
laundries, dry cleaners, garages and service stations.
(ii) Refuse burning operation in different municipalities, industries and in residential
apartments.
(iii) Burning of fuels for all modes of transportation which includes. trucks, buses,
motor vehicles, rail-engines, steamers, Ships, etc. using petrol, diesel and gasolines.
(iv) Industrial and commercial process emissions in different manufacturing process
namely metallurgical plants, chemical plants, refineries mineral production and so on,
in agricultural operation like spraying, husking, grinding and field of burnings; in
commercial activities like spray painting, printing, in sewage treatment, in construction
and demolition works and so on.

57
TYPES OF POLLUTANTS

(a Sulphur Compound. Various sulphur compounds like sulphur

dioxide, sulphur trioxide, hydrogen sulphide are mostly primary origin
and result from burning of coal, petroleum, metals, chemical and
Mineral. They are pungent irritating, colourless, gaseous materials. It is
considered as one major atmospheric pollutants. Hydrogen sulphide
(H2S) is a toxic, evil smelling gas well known for its rotten egg like
odour.

Other sulphur compounds that are of interest in air pollution, principally

because of their strong odours are methyl merceptan (CH3 SH), dim
ethyl sulphide (CH2 SC H3). They have odours similar to those emitted
by skunks and rotting cabbage.

58
(b) Nitrogen Compound. Some nitrogen compounds like oxides of
nitrogen (NO, NO2) are important primary pollutants, released by
petroleum, plants, industrial operations and automobile combustion.
Nitric Oxide (NO) and Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) have not only adverse
effects on human health, but also they combine photo chemically
with other gases under certain conditions to produce a number of
secondary pollutants.
( c) Carbon Compound. For carbon compounds, Carbon monoxide
(CO) should be named first, which is a colourless, odourless and
tasteless poisonous gas and produced as the primary pollutant form
by incomplete combustion of gasoline, fuming of metal oxide etc.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is also produced from the burning of fuel and
usually not considered as a pollutant. However, it plays an important
role in the production of secondary pollutants of carbon compounds.
Un-burnt carbon particles like coal dust etc., are also quite common
air pollutants.
59
(d) Chlorine Compound. Chlorine and hydrogen chloride gas produced
from cotton and flour bleaching processes and petroleum refining.
Chlorine, chloramine and chlorine dioxide may also be produced by
leakage of disinfection installation of water treatment units.

(e) Fluorine Compound. The gaseous forms of fluorine emitted to the

air include fluorine (F2), hydrogen fluoride (HF), silicon tetrafluoroxide
(SiF4), hydrofluorisilic acid (H2 Si F6). Principal sources include the
aluminium, steel, glass, brick, tile and phosphate fertilizer industries.

( f) Oxidants. Ozone (O3) and other oxidants such as peroxyacetyl

nitrate (PAN) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) pollute the atmosphere as a
result of a rather wide variety of photo chemical reactions. Ozone is
formed naturally in the atmosphere by electrical charges, but usually does
not (a) reach pollutant proportions unless nitrogen dioxide coupled
with ultraviolet rays react with oxygen and other molecules particularly
organic and hydrocarbons to stabilize ozone as a secondary pollutant.
60
Organic Gases. Organic gases mainly include hydrocarbons which are
product of petroleums production, inefficient combustion of fuels like
gasoline and diesel powered vehicles, gas turbines, jet air craft and
solvent usage. Hydrocarbons react in the atmosphere, which produce
objectionable intermediate compounds. These products cause eye trouble
and damage vegetations.
(a)Arsenic. Arsenic comes under a few specific pollutants, which
occurs as an impurity in many ores and coal. It is also produced in the
industrial processes and in smelting. Some insecticides like arsenic
trioxide and lead arsenate may cause air pollution. All these have
poisonous effects.
Particulate. Particulate matter from various sources like motor vehicle,
industries, power generation, refuse disposal, ocean salt, volcanic ash,
roadway dust, wind erosion, product of forest fire, plant pollen etc. is a
potential hazard and a major cause of air pollution.
In general airborne particles range in size from 0.001 to 500  with the
bulk of the particulate mass in atmosphere ranging from 0.1 to 10 
which tends to follow the motion of the gas in which they are 61borne.
Particulate matter - Any material, except un combined water, that
exists in the solid or liquid state in the atmosphere at
normal condition.
Aerosol - A dispersion of microscopic solid or liquid particles
in the atmosphere or gaseous media.
Dust - Solid particles larger than colloidal size capable of
temporary suspension in air.
Fly ash - Finely divided particles of ash entrained in flue gas.
Particles may contain unburnt fuel.
Fog - Visible aerosol.
Fume - Particles formed by condensation, sublimation or
chemical reaction predominant smaller than 1 
(Tobacco smoke, acid fume)
Mist - Dispersion of small liquid droplets of sufficient size to
fall from the air.
Particle - Discrete mass of solid or liquid matter.
Smoke - Small gas borne particles resulting from combustion
Soot - An agglomeration of carbon particles.
Smog - A mixture of fog and smoke. 62
Particulate concentration of in the atmosphere is generally expressed as
the total mass of the particles in a given volume. The basis of unit of
particle concentration is micrograms per cubic metre or g/m3 or
mg/m3. Types of particulate generated from various industries and their
control is given in Table 2.1.
Particulates in the atmosphere reduce the visibility due to scattering and
absorption of light. The dust particles in a concentration of 2000/cm3
Call obscure a mountain at 75 km, while a concentration of
100,000/cm3 can obscure visibility at 1.5 km. A concentration of NO2 of
20 ppm would probably reduce visibility to 1 km. NO2 causes the sky to
appear brownish in colour in addition to reducing visibility.
Smog. Anthropogenic air pollution in urban areas is often referred as
smog. The word smog was first used by Dr. Des Voeux to describe the
combinations of smoke and natural f' fog. Smog periodically occurs
during winter and reduce the visibility to only a few metres. Smog is
the combination of smoke, unsaturated hydrocarbons, particulates and
fog. Smog causes suffocation bronchial effects, irritation to eyes,
63
interferes the visibility etc.
There are two types of smogs; one is known as the "Classical" smog
and the other is known as the "Photochemical" smog. The classical
smog is predominately a combination of sulphur dioxide and particulate
matter, and the photochemical smog is the result of chemical reactions
between hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and sun light.

Estimated Global Major Air Pollutant Emissions

Pollutant Emission, million tons/year
Natural Anthropogenic

1. Particulate matter
a) Primary particle production 1250 100
b) Gas-to-particle conversion 1150 215
2. Sulphur dioxide 200 160
3. Nox 450 190 (as No2 )
4. Carbon monoxide 4000 500
5. Hydrocarbons 1600 95
64
 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

GENERAL
There are adverse effects of air pollution, of which are listed
below in brief:
a) Damage of properties: atmospheric pollutants come in contact with the building
structures and other properties. Due to their depositions, there will be physical or
chemical reactions. The presence of moisture in the atmosphere, may accelerate these
reactions. The ultimate effect would be discoloration and disintegration of the surfaces
of buildings and structures.
b) Damage to vegetations: The atmospheric pollutants will change the contents of
the air. Secondly, the pollutants may be deposited on the leaves of the trees and choke
their pore. Both will adversely affect the growth of the vegetations.
c) Obstruction to sight: Air pollution causes the formation of haze or smog, and clear
vision of the sight is obstructed. This creates difficulty in movement of traffic and
there will be more chances of accidents.
d) Health hazards: Atmospheric pollution will cause heath hazards to both man and
animals. Several diseases of respiratory system in short known as Pneumoconiosis or
Pulmonary diseases, are caused due to air pollution. Examples of some such disease
and the corresponding pollutants are given in the Table 3.1 65
Besides these some industrial gases like carbon monoxide, sulphur
dioxide, oleum, methylisocynate (MIC), chlorine etc. have
poisonous effect of varying degrees on human and animal bodies.

The effects of air pollution of specific pollutants are summarised

and given in the tabular form in the Table 3.2.

66
Although something has been covered about the adverse effects of
air pollution to get some preliminary ideas about it, far more are yet
be identified. There are number of disastrous episodes on record in
different parts of the world at different time in which death resulted
in men and animals during the period of intense air pollution. A few
of such incidents are given in tabular form :

However, the pollution-wise adverse effects are discussed more

elaborately in the subsequent stages.

67
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON HUMAN HEALTH

Even though there had been occasional speculation and complaints about
the health effects of air pollution since the days of king Edward I of
England, it was not until the occurrence of certain air pollution episodes
that people finally came to realize that it was a threat to human health.
The greatest impact of air pollutants on human results from day-to-day
exposure under unexceptional conditions. It is believed that these effects
occur through continued irritation by pollutants interacting with other
environmental or biologic factors to initiate disease or exacerbate
previously existing disease.
Pollutants enter the body through the respiratory system, which can be
divided into the upper respiratory system, consisting of nasal cavity and
the trachea, and the lower respiratory system, consisting of bronchial
tubes and the lungs. At the entrance to the lungs, the trachea divides into
the right and left bronchi. Each bronchus again divided and subdivides at
least 20 times, ending in bronchioles which are located deep within the
68
lungs.
At the end of the bronchioles are three million air sacs known as alveoli.
Aleveoli are the functional units of the lung; it is across their membranes
that oxygen diffuses from the air to the pulmonary capillaries and carbon
dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction. Although an individual
alveolus has a diameter of only about 200 microns, there are several
hundred million alveoli in the entire lung, providing a total surface area
for gas transport of approximately 30 sq. meters.
Particles of radii less than 5.0 microns generally pass through the
upper respiratory system, escaping entrapment. Those in the size
range 0.5 to 5.0 microns are deposited as far as the bronchioles,
but few reach the alveoli. Such particles are usually removed
within few hours by cilia, fine hair-like structures which line the
walls of the bronchi and bronchioles. A continual wavelike motion
of the cilia has the important effect of moving to mucous and
entrapped particles up to the larynx where they may be eliminated
by swallowing. Particles less than 0.5 micron reach and may settle
in the alveoli causing damage to the respiratory organs.
69
1. Particulates may be intrinsically toxic because of their inherent
chemical and/or physical characteristics. Such particles are usually
present in trace amounts and specific concern has been expressed
about a number of such metallic particles and their derivatives
because of the possibility of their concentrations increasing beyond
current levels. Table 3.1 gives some information about the toxic
effect of certain trace metals on human body.
Absorption of gases in the respiratory system. The degree of
absorption of gaseous pollutants in the respiratory system is governed
by their solubility. For example, S02 is quite soluble and
consequently, is absorbed early in the airway, leading to swelling of
the upper air tract. On the other hand CO, NO2 and 03 are relatively
insoluble and are able to penetrate deep and reach the terminal air
sacs of the lungs. No2 and 03 cause pulmonary edema (Swelling)
which inhibits gas transfer to the blood. CO is transported from the
air sacs to the blood and combines with hemoglobin thus preventing
oxygen transfer. In many cases we can account for the responses by
70
considering individual pollutants.
Carbon monoxide. The toxic effects of CO on human beings arise
from it reversible combination with haemoglobin (Hb) in blood: Hb02 +
CO =HbCO + O2. Human haemoglobin has a much greater affinity for
CO than it does for CO than it does for O2 (210 times), thus preventing
oxygen transfer. The formation of carboxy-haemoglobin (HbCO)
effectively reduces the amount of Hb available to carry oxygen to the
tissues, and death can result by asphyxiation (lack of oxygen). In
addition, CO slows the release of O2 to the tissue by retarding the
dissociation of oxy-haemoglobin (Hb02) into Hb and O2 so that anoxia
(oxygen starvation) may result even though the blood is carrying
several times as much O2 as the body requires.

The approximate HbCO levels (compared to total HbCO + HbO2) at

which different symptoms occur are summarized in Table 3.7.
CO level in the ambient air are particularly high along urban streets.
Maximum annual 8 hour averages can be 10 to 40 ppm and occasional
short term concentrations exceed 100 ppm. These levels can easily lead
to HbCO concentration in blood of approximately 2 to 7 per cent. 71
The single most dominant variable in increasing blood HbCO
concentrations was found to be cigarette smoking. A non-smoker
breathing air containing no CO will have a background HbCO in
blood of 0.5 per cent from biological CO production in the body. The
CO level of cigarette smoke that enters the lungs is estimated to be
about 400 ppm. This intermittent exposure would cause smokers to
have higher HbCO levels than non-smokers and the values are
estimated to be around 5%. Although these values do not lead tAt
present the most dangerous results of exposure to CO are the serious
intoxications and even death that occur from CO production in closed
areas such as from automobile exhausts in garages (or exhaust fumes
leaking into the interior of the automobile), blocked fire places in
homes etc. Several thousand people die from CO poisoning each year
the world over and many of them are suicides. o clinical symptoms,
they have been associated with impairment of mental performance,
visual acuity and other functions. 72
Oxides of sulphur. No other pollutant has been studied as intensely
as the oxides of sulfur, yet many questions concerning the effect of
SO2 upon health remain unanswered. This is because high SO2
levels are often associated with high particulate concentration and
high humidity and hence few epidemiological studies have been
able to differentiate adequately the effects of the pollutants.
Exposure to SO2 levels of the order of 1.0 ppm leads to broncho
constriction, which may be assessed in terms of a slight increase in
airway resistance. This may be accompanied by shallow breathing
and an increased respiratory rate. Many of these effects may
diminish during continuous exposure, but the reason for this is not
understood. Individuals generally exhibit a reaction to SO2 at
concentrations of 5 ppm and above, although some sensitive
individuals have responded at 1 to 2 ppm. In Table 3.9 the effects of
some SO2 concentrations are given.
73
Below a concentration of 25 ppm, the acute irritant effects of SO2 are
confined primarily to the upper respiratory tract by the solubility of SO2
in the moist mucous lining. Long-term effects resulting from extended
exposure to low concentrations of SO2 include the incidence of
respiratory infection in children. However, the permanence of these
effects is still not known. Most of the concern about the health hazard of
current atmospheric SO2 levels is related to their effects on the elderly,
and people with chronic respiratory problems.
SO2 becomes an irritant in the lower respiratory system when
experienced in association with small particulates. The moist air in the
alveoli establish conditions where SO2 is oxidized and H2SO4 droplets
are formed. It would also appear that particulates act in synergy with SO2
not only because they carry it deep into the lungs but because their
chemical composition (salts of ferrous iron, manganese, vanadium, etc.)
can enhance the rate of its oxidation to H2SO4.
Studies of the alteration in lung function in humans indicate that H2SO4
and metal sulphates are also much more potent irritants than SO2 at the
74
same ambient concentration of sulphur
Oxides of Nitrogen. Of the seven oxides of nitrogen known to exist in the atmosphere
only nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are thought to affect human health.
NO is not an irritant and it is not believed to have any adverse health effects on humans
at concentrations that occur in the atmosphere, even in highly polluted areas. These
concentrations are dangerous, however, because of the possibility of oxidation to NO2.
Table 3.10 gives typical concentrations of NO2 in 5 Indian cities. These figures which
were reported over one-to two-month periods compare favourably with long-term
averages of 0.02-0.05 ppm in London and in several Japanese cities.
NO2 is a reddish gas whose odour can be detected at concentrations of about 0.12 ppm.
Long-term exposure to 0.06 ppm have been related to an increase in acute respiratory
disease in humans. Some increase in bronchitis in children (2 to 3 years old) has been
observed at concentrations below 0.01 ppm. Concentrations at or near 13 ppm resulted
in eye and nasal irritation in a small number of volunteers. In these cases, the nasal
irritation has more intense than that of the eyes. Concentrations of 100 ppm or more for
a few minutes can be lethal to humans.
Oxides of nitrogen, in combination with hydrocarbons, react in the presence of sunlight
to form photochemical smog and produce secondary pollutants like the
oxidants. These secondary pollutants are the ones which are most damaging and
detrimental to human health.

75
Hydrocarbons and photochemical oxidants. Studies made to date of the effects
of hydrocarbons at concentrations usually found in urban atmospheres have
demonstrated no direct adverse effects upon human health. Aliphatic hydrocarbons
produce ~desirable effects only at concentrations hundreds to thousands of times
higher than those now found in the atmosphere. No adverse effects have been
reported for levels lower than 500 ppm. Methane is not toxic in itself
(concentrations of 50% or more can be dangerous because suffocation may result),
but concentrations of a few per cent may lead to explosions. Aromatic
hydrocarbons are a greater threat than the aliphatic. The vapours are much more
irritating to the mucous membranes, and some studies do indicate the
carcinogenicity of certain aromatics.
As mentioned earlier, hydrocarbons are of particular concern because of their
involvement in the photochemical reactions forming photochemical oxidants. Many
of the oxidants of photochemical smog cause eye irritation, particularly the
peroxyacyl nitrates. Typical ozone levels in Indian urban atmosphere are given in
Table 3.11. These values, like those presented for NO2 were reported over one to
two-month periods. These levels even though of no major consequence to the
health of humans, are known to affect vegetation as will be discussed later in detail.

76
Contrary to popular beliefs, ozone appears to have no effect on the eyes at usual
pollution levels. However, oxidants such as peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and
peroxybenzoyl nitrate (PBN) can cause eye irritation, and ill combination with
ozone they irritate the nose and throat, and cause chest constriction.
Other Air Pollutants. There are other air pollutants besides the major types
discussed. In certain places these contribute significantly to the total air
pollution burden. Many industries, especially the chemical industry, can emit
special pollutants into the atmosphere - H2SO4 HCI, formaldehyde, alcohols,
and many other compounds. Two air pollutants that have attracted special
interest in recent years are asbestos and pesticides.
Asbestos fibers have been found in urban air and they originate from many uses
made by man or asbestos products. The inhalation of asbestos dust or fibers can
give rise to a disabling lung disease, pneumoconiosis, termed asbestosis.
Another very serious consequence of over exposure to asbestos is increased
incidence of lung cancer, and there is conclusive evidence that this disease is
much more prevalent in asbestos workers than in general population.

77
Pesticides are found worldwide in the air not only in
agricultural communities, but also in urban and nonpesticide
consuming communities. It is evident that air is their prime
carrier. The concentration of pesticides in the air varies
widely, ranging from 1 x 10-15 to 1 x 10- 3 g/m3. Although
pesticides furnish several benefits, they entail a number of
risks and problems. One is their toxicity or their potential for
inducing tumors, cancers, or birth defects. The interaction of
one pesticide with another sometimes causes the overall
effect on human health to be more serious than the sum of
the individual effects. Studies of the effect of airborne
pesticides on man are at present insufficient.

78
3.3. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON PLANTS
3.4. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON MATERIALS

Air pollutants can effect materials by soiling or chemical deterioration.

Air borne particles, including soot, dust, fumes and mist, can cause a
wide range of damage to materials. Particles will soil painted surfaces,
clothing and curtains merely by settling on them. Through their own
corrosiveness and through the action of corrosive chemicals absorbed or
absorbed on them, the particles can cause direct chemical damage to
materials. Hygroscopic particles commonly found in the atmosphere can
accelerate corrosion particularly in the presence of sulphur containing
compounds. The corrosion rates of various metals, and the damage to
buildings, sculpture and other structures are highest in urban and
industrial atmospheres. Sulphuric acid mist that is produced when SO2 is
catalytically oxidized in water droplets is well known to attack a wide
variety of building materials such as marble and limestone. The reaction
is
79
CaCO3 (limestone) + H2SO4 CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
The calcium sulphate formed on the masonry is about twice as bulky as the carbonate
of the stone from which it was formed. Such stones appear "leprous" or "diseased".
The most detrimental pollutant responsible for metallic corrosion is SO2. Metals
adversely affected include, but are not limited to, steel, aluminium, copper, zinc and
iron. Aluminium is fairly resistant to SO2 attack. However, under highly humid
conditions, the corrosion rate is greatly increased. Leather readily absorbs SO2 and as
a result loses strength and finally disintegrates. SO2 also causes paper to discolour
and become brittle and fragile. Also SO2 attacks textiles made of nylon, especially
nylon hose.
Photochemical oxidants such as ozone cause much of the degradation of materials
now attributed to "weathering". Ozone attacks synthetic rubbers, thereby reducing the
life of automobile tyres, rubber insulation, and so on. Table 3.14 shows the effects of
ozone on unprotected rubber. Ozone also attacks cellulose in textiles, reducing the
strength of such items. The harmful effects of ozone exposure on textiles increases in
order for fabrics made of cotton, acetate, nylon, and polyester. Oxides of nitrogen are
responsible to the fading of textile dyes. The dyes include those used on acetate
rayon, cotton, and viscose rayon.

80
3.5. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON ANIMALS
3.6. HEALTH, VEGETATION, AND MATERIALS DAMAGE IN INDIA

In India, unfortunately, there is no systematic or statistical data available on the health

status of the people exposed to air pollution. According to one estimate, as many as 60
million people are affected by air pollution alone. The need for such a survey is urgent
to know the damage to community health. The nature of damage caused to tropical and
subtropical vegetation by air pollution is almost unknown. Reports of SO2 damage to
plants like banana, grapes, papaya, etc., are scattered but no systematic assessment is
available. Even though there I has been lot of work done in the moderate climate
countries in Europe and North America for vegetation damage, it is of very little
practical application in India, and hence there is an urgent need to develop our own
criteria for damage to tropical broad Leaved plants
Also little data are available on materials damage due to air pollution. However, the
corrosive effects of acid products of pollution on metals is available for few cities. Due
to high concentration of industrial discharges mixed with salinity and humidity in the
air, corrosion rates in Bombay are reported to be 3 to 6 times higher than in other
similar coastal areas of the country.

81
GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The “greenhouse” shield that keeps our planet warm enough to sustain life is now
becoming a heat trap threatening to disrupt the global environment.
This thin layer of certain gases, 25 km up acts like greenhouse glass letting heat through
but stopping enough radiation back into space to warm our world. But now the
environmental system making the “greenhouse” layer denser, keeping in more heat.
In particular use of fossil fuel – coal, oil, natural gas – emitting carbon dioxide (CO2) is
building up at rates which, with other “greenhouse” gases, can damage the ecosystem.
CO2 is the chief single culprit – the other 39 known “greenhouse” gases are responsible
for half of global warming.
Most scientists researching the atmosphere now believe that the CO2 build-up will be
double in 60 years. The accelerating “greenhouse” effect could raise the plane’s average
temperature between 1.5 and 4.5 C.
There is evidence that atmospheric CO2 content has increases by about 25% in the last
100 years. In that time world average temperature has increased by between 0.2 and
0.6C. Sea levels have risen by about 12 cm.

82
Conservative scientific estimates, based on the likely range of
temperature rise over the next few decades, except the heat-
expanded seas to rise by upto 1 m, threatening islands, deltas and
coasts. In the higher latitudes, winters will tend to be shorter, wetter
and warmer with longer, hotter and drier summers. In the tropics
and subtropics , changes in climate patterns are also expected. Dry
areas are likely to become drier producing more land degradation.
Humid areas will be better with better more frequent and intense
tropical storms. Meanwhile, actions are available to all countries to
limit the “greenhouse” effect and gain more time in which to find
other answers. The most effective measure available now are more
energy conservation and efficiency and reforestation. The energy
strategy can also save money as well as well as protecting the
environment.

83
SEAS TO RISE AS THE WORLD WARMS UP

Because the oceans contain an estimated 53 times more carbon than the
atmosphere, the questions of how oceanic carbon behaves and how it returns to
the atmosphere may become key factors in determining the rate of global
warming.
Among the disruptions expected from global warming is the thermal expansion
of the se Containing and coping with rising seas will require two broad
strategies. First, the reduction of "greenhouse" gas emissions to delay the
warming and gain time for effective long-term answers to overall climate
change. Second, research that will identify the regions likely to be hardest hit
by the rising waters and help local planning of coastal defences.

Such planning may take several decades. Also, the obvious defences are
expensive. One estimate is that the cost of protecting the east coast of the
United States, alone, would cost $ 100 billion or more for a one-metre rise. The
most vulnerable areas in developing countries do not have such economic
resources.
84
A joint study by UNEP and the United States Environment Protection Agency
noted that, in the Nile, rises could inundate one-fifth of Egypt's arable land now
used by 10 million of the nation's 49 million people.

In Bangladesh rising seas could cover up to one sixth of its area, now housing
more than a quarter of its population of 90 million.

Many nations are expected to require coast and estuary defences and mitigating
measures. Many port cities are likely to be affected, among them Buenos Aires,
Calcutta, Istanbul, Jakarta, London, Los Angels, Manila, New York, Rio de
Janeiro and Tokyo.

The first casualties are expected to be low-lying island states such as the
Maldives. They could disappear altogether unless significant defences can be
organised in time. A special UNEP mission is now studying the best defences
for the islands.
Other anticipated effects of sea-level rise are accelerated coastal erosion,
damage to drainage and irrigation systems, the rise of salt-water levels in
groundwater, rivers, estuaries and farmland. 85
Fisheries and wildlife habitats may be disrupted or disappear. The
destruction of farmland and the salination of fresh water are among
the most damaging possibilities. Damage to existing storm defences
is likely. Much higher tides and storm surges could wash away
beaches and make whole coastal areas untenable.

86
THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE

The global warming trend could bring about geographical shifts in crop-growing
patterns of several hundred kilometers for each degree of temperature rise.
"It will also certainly alter the frequency and magnitude of severe shocks to agriculture
from major floods, persistent droughts, forests fires and crop pests," says Dr. Parry.
Shifting crops and communities by hundred of kilometres to new growing areas are
among the possible demands of coping with a return to dry and windy conditions.
Again, timely planning of preventive strategies against changing conditions is vital,
says the report.
However, increased rainfall accompanying warmer weather could lead to declining
yields and other problems. Soil erosion, waterlogging of fields and soil degradation
together with an increase in water pollution are possibilities for which regional planners
should prepare. Education on coping with the new conditions, incentives for soil
conservation, new crop varieties, and further research are proposed by the case studies.
In the tropics and subtropics, where most developing countries lie, more extreme
changes of climate are predicted, Dry areas could become drier -accelerating
agricultural losses to land degradation and desertification. Humid areas are likely to
become much water, with more frequent and intense tropical storms -which will spread
into latitudes where they are now unknown.
87
Lecture-2

88
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING

Environmental threats facing the world are so great that no country, or

group of countries can help to tackle them alone. It compels us to act
together as a world community and forges global partnership. We now
realize that unless development is guided by environmental, social,
cultural and ethical consideration much of it will continue to have
undesirable effect, provide reduced benefits or even fail altogether.
Such unsustainable development will only exacerberate the industrial
problems that already exist.
The sound management of bio-technology for treatment and disposal of
hazardous wastes and toxic chemicals will protect the human health and
improve the quality of life.
Unsustainable developments and industrial growth will cause global
warming, the ozone depletion, soil erosion, felling forest, disappearing
species, pollution, poverty and innumerable
problems that will face the world community. 89
To counteract this, proper planning on environmental considerations
have to be done. The following guidelines may be adopted during the
process of planning :

(i) Zoning: The residential areas, industries, commercial areas etc. may
be located in different zones considering the topography, meteorology,
wind direction, water bodies.

(ii) Road alignment/road space should be properly planned so that

traffic flow should be smooth and unwanted traffic jams will be
prevented during the peak hours. Faster movement of traffic will make
lesser emission of automobile exhaust and hence less pollution. For
cities and towns about 15 ~o 20% area should be covered by roads
alone.

(iii) Technology up-gradation for engine combustion of vehicular traffic

should be developed so that combustion should be efficient and
automobile exhaust should contain lesser quantity of pollutants. 90
(iv) All types of waste i.e. liquid, solid or gaseous wastes that are
generated by the community should be properly handled, treated and
disposed of.

(v) The damage caused due to the developmental work should be

restored as far as practicable by maintaining water bodies, open areas,
tree plantations, forest reserves,and causing least disturbance in the eco-
system.

(vi) Noise pollution also should be restricted within the building by using
proper construction materials and in the surrounding' by proper planning,
plantation for artificial screening, zoning etc., and maintaining low noise
level at the source itself.
(vii) Planning of water supply system for safe, potable adequate quantity
of water falls under the purview of environmental planning. As a general
rule where a river serves..as the source of water, the location of the
intake should be on the upstream side and sufficiently away from the
91
point of disposal of sewage even it may be well treated one.
viii) Area of township should be provided with drainage facilities.

(ix) Planning of sewerage and wastes disposal system should be so

made, such that pollution due to sewage and other wastes is
prevented.

(x) Planning should be such that the area should be safe, livable,
comfortable, healthy and attractive one. It will also be easier to
maintain the cities free from pollution if planning is done efficiently.
For this purpose, in addition to obligatory open spaces, like front
open space, side open spaces and rear open space with a view to
providing adequate natural light and ventilation for individual
buildings and structures, there should be enough organized open
spaces in forms of parks, playground, water-bodies etc., while
planning township to prevent ecological disturbances and disorders.

92
Air Pollution:
Water Quality:

93
What is EIA
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a policy and management
tool for both planning and decision-making. EIA assists to identify,
predict, and evaluate the foreseeable environmental consequences of
proposed development projects, plans, and policies. The outcome of
an EIA study assists the decision maker and the general public to
determine whether a project should be implemented and in what form.
EIA does not make decisions, but it is essential for those who do.
Environmental assessment (EA) refers to an understanding of the
present status of environment. An environmental impact statement
(EIS) is the final step of an EIA/EA exercise where the conclusions of
the assessment are put out in a communicable form to the concerned
authority. There is thus a distinction between the terms EIA, EA, and
EIS.

94
Environmental impact assessment process, therefore, involve evaluation
of environmental parameters and incorporation of necessary safeguards
for those activities having a bearing on environmental quality. Evaluation
of the beneficial and adverse effects of the development projects on the
eco-system should be done both qualitatively as well as quantitatively.
A frequent opinion is that an EIA should usually only examine or look
into the possible negative consequences of a project on the environment.
Any positive issues emerging from the development are taken as stated
by the project proponent or the developer. However, EIA is not restricted
or biased to the examination and mitigation of negative impacts alone.
EIA can also look into the possible positive issues due to the
developmental projects and explore or suggest ways of enhancing them
further by carrying out modifications in the project.

95
Benefits of EIA
1. The EIA may be defined as a planning tool which is used, together
with the project feasibility study (FS), to ensure that the project plan is
the optimal economic-cum-environmental plan, that is, the plan is
environmentally as well as economically sound and thus the continuing
economic development will be sustainable.
2. The EIA is not intended to disrupt nor to impede economic
development. A protect plan which is economic-cum-environmental will
have a higher benefit/cost ratio than a plan which is not responsive to
environmental needs, especially when long-term as well as short-term
effects are considered.
3. The role of the EIA is not just to identify and describe environmental
hazards which a proposed project will likely cause if no EPM
(environmental protection measures) are included in the project. Rather
the EIA should specify the necessary EPM and ensure that these EPM
are included in the overall project plan as delineated by the feasibility
96
study.
4. Environmental protection measures mean more than "mitigation".
EPM include
(i) mitigation measures to reduce adverse effects,
(ii) measures for offsetting unavoidable adverse effects, and even
(iii) measures for environmental enhancement.
EIA is essentially an early warning process. The aim of EIA is to balance
the environmental interest in the larger scheme of development issues
and concerns. The primary objective of EIA is to ensure that potential
problems are foreseen and addressed at an early stage in the project's
planning and design. To achieve this objective, the assessment should
provide information on the environmental, social, and economic benefits
of proposed activities, which should then be presented clearly and
systematically to decision makers.

97
Having read the conclusions of an EIA, the project planners and
engineers can then shape the project so that its expected benefits can
be achieved and sustained without causing inadvertent environmental
impacts. An EIA process, for instance, can greatly influence where
and how a project is sited, the size of the facilities to be built, the
technologies employed, and the area served or affected by the project.

Specifically, an EIA:
 identifies the sources of impacts from the project activities and
recognizes the environmental components which are critical to the
change or the impacts;
 predicts the likely environmental impacts of projects on the
identified environmental components either using quantitative,
qualitative, semi-quantitative methods 98
 finds ways to reduce unacceptable impacts and enhance the positive
contribution of the project by recommending mitigation measures or
by exploring a change in the capacity, technology, or design or even
by evaluating alternative sites;
 presents to decision makers and other concerned agencies the results
of impact
 identification, prediction, and assessment with options of suggested
measures of mitigation and monitoring.
One of the purposes of EIA is to ensure that both public and private
enterprises accept the environmental effects of the decisions they make
with regard to implementation of the project or programme. The process
of EIA is well defined and practiced today in almost all the countries.

99
Procedure
for
EIA
It includes:
i. assessment of existing environmental status.
ii. analysis of various factors of ecosystem like trees, ponds, wildlife.
iii. analysis of adverse impacts of the project that is to be started.
iv. impact on people in the neighborhood.

100
CERTIFICATION BODY
It is an independent organization which verifies that a company's EMS
conforms to specific standard such as ISO 14001. Such a body is called
certifier. If the system conforms to standard, the company will be
awarded certificate. It is advisable to select a certification body which
has been accredited by government agency or other impartial
organization with credibility.

101
 Objective
of
Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA)

The objective of environmental impact assessment is to achieve

sustainable development with

(a) minimal environmental degradation, and

(b) prevention of long term environmental adverse effects by
incorporating suitable mitigating measures

102
Environmental inventory
Environmental inventory is a complete description of the environmental as it exists in
an area where a particular proposed action is being considered. The inventory is
compiled from a check list of descriptors for the physical, and cultural environment.
The physical environment includes such major areas as geology, topography, surface
water and groundwater resources, water quality, air quality and climatology. The
biological environment refers to the flora and fauna of the area, including species of
trees, grasses, fish, birds and mammals. Items in the cultural environment include
human population trends and population distributions, historic and archaeological sites,
and economic indicators of human welfare.
The environmental inventory serves as the basis for evaluating the potential impacts on
the environment both beneficial and adverse, of a proposed action. It the initial step in
the environmental impact assessment statement in the section referred to as “description
of the existing environment” or “description of the environmental setting without the
project.”

103
 Who is involved in the EIA process:
The various participants in the EIA process should be clearly identified.
Following is a list of those that are normally involved.
• Decision maker: Can be a head of state, a group of ministers, an elected
body, or a single designated individual.
• Assessor: Is the person, agency or company having responsibility for
preparing the EIS.
• Proponent: Can be a government agency or a private firm wishing to
initiate the project.
• Reviewer: Is the person, agency, or board with responsibility for
reviewing the EIS and assuring compliance with published
guidelines or regulations.
• Other agencies of government: Are agencies with a special interest in
the project; they may be associated with provinces, states,
cities, or villages.
• Expert advisors: Are persons with the specialized knowledge required
to evaluate the proposed action; they may come from within
or outside the government service.
• Public at large: 104
• Special-interest group:
Resources needed for an EIA
 Qualified multidisciplinary staff. This includes a skilled manager (to co-ordinate
the activities, communicate with decision makers, and motivate the study team), trained
specialists(in fields such as environmental science, rural and urban planning,
economics, waste control, process engineering, landscape design, sociology and cultural
activities) and a communication expert.
 Technical guidelines, agreed with the competent authority, for carrying out the
various phases of the EIA process.
 Information about the environment
 Analytical capabilities for doing fieldwork, laboratory testing library research, data
processing etc.
 Institutional arrangements, including a formal procedure for consultation with
decision maker and other interested groups, the authority to obtain necessary
information about the proposed project.
 Review monitoring and enforcement powers, to ensure that accepted mitigation
measures are included in the development.
105
 Money and time
Effectiveness of EIA

1) Legal regulations
2) Rational and open decision-making
3) Project EIA sustained by strategic EIA
4) Room for public participation
5) Independent review and central information

106
Goals of EIA Process
Environmental goals may fall into three categories – (1) clean up air & water (2)
controlled land & water use and (3) social welfare.
The goal must include recovering & recycling wastes and controlling pesticides, toxic
substances, adequate health, housing, education, jobs, recreation cultural opportunities,
and means of transportation. It also demands, a sense of personal dignity, self-respect,
community involvement and participation in decisions, which affect their lives.
Protection of scenery, clean air and water, minimization of noise and open space for
active outdoor recreation have all taken on new importance. There is great concern for
man’s health and a desire to live work and play in more pleasant surroundings.

107
Impact Prediction and Assessment:
To properly predict and assess the impact of a proposed action, it is first necessary to
describe the future environmental setting in the area without the project. Various
techniques are available for projecting current conditions into the future based on
historical trends.
Prediction and assessment of the impact of each alternative on the physical-chemical,
biological, cultural and socioeconomic environment are required. There are many
scientific approaches and models that can be used to predict impacts on the (1) air
environment, (2) water environment and (3) noise environment. Few quantitative
methods are also available for predicting the impacts of alternatives on the biological
environment. The prediction of impacts on the cultural environment is also possible.
Finally, prediction of impacts on the socio-economic environment does have
technological bases. However, most of the protection of socio-economic considerations,
such as population and population distribution are largely based on historical trends.
Most of the methodologies of impact analysis involve the concept of an (1) impact
scale and (2) an impact importance. Various techniques are available for aggregating
the information including the multiplication of scaling and importance values in some
techniques & the use of professional judgement in others.
108
 Environmental Assessment Process
There are five activities provides input information for preparation of the EIS.
1. Basics
2. Description of environmental setting
3. Impact prediction & assessment
4. Selection of proposed action
5. Preparation of environmental impact statement (EIS)

Step 3 is very important.

In step 5 the draft impact statement circulated for review and comment, and following
the incorporation of the review comments, a final EIS is prepared and filed with the
DoE. Thirty days following the tiling, the proposed action may be initiated.
Finally we can say that the first step in the EIA process is to (1) Screening to determine
whether a project falls within the relevant act or regulations, and (2) Scoping, whether
the development is likely to create significant environmental disruption. If so, an
assessment is undertaken, leading to the preparation of an EIS.
In some jurisdictions, the EIS is open to public scrutiny and may be reviewed at public
hearings. Eventually a decision is made at the political level as to whether to (1) accept
the development (2) accept an amended form of the proposed development (3) accept
an alternative proposal or (4) reject the development. 109
Environment Impact Statement
The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is a document written in the format as
specified by DoE.
There are two categories of EISs: (1) draft statements and (2) final statements. The final
statements is the draft statement modified to include a discussion of problems and
objections raised by reviewers.
Basic Contents of an Impact Statement:
There are five points:
1. The environmental impact of the proposed action: Both the positive and negative
ramifications of a given proposed action should be explored in complete detail. In
addition, attention must also be directed towards the primary and secondary impacts
associated with a proposed action.
2. Any adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided should the proposal be
implemented:
3. Alternatives to the proposed action: This section has caused a great deal of difficulty,
and many court cases have resulted from inadequate treatment of this section by the
proposing agency.
4. The relationship between local short-term uses of man’s environment and the
maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity. It is based on the principle
that each generation should serve as trustee of the environment for succeeding
generation. In a pragmatic sense many impact statements have described the impacts
associated with the construction phase to be short term and the operational phase to
110
be long term.
5 Any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources which would be
involved in the proposed action should it be implemented: Attention is on possible
changes on land usage as a result of a proposed action, loss of cultural features
such as archaeological or historical sites, loss of habitat for plants and
animals, loss of impact on rare and endangered plants and/or animals,
material required for project construction, energy usage required during project
utilization and even the human and monetary expenditures involved.
Guidelines for preparing EIA report (EIS)
1. Description of proposed action, project purposes, and environmental setting
2. Relationship of the proposed action to land-use plants, policies, and controls for the affected area.
3. Probable impact of the proposed action on the environment
4. Alternatives to the proposed action.
5. Any probably adverse environmental effects that cannot be avoided.
6. Relationship between local short-term uses of the human environment and the
maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity.
7. Any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources that would be involved
in the proposed action should it be implemented.
8. An indication of what other interests and considerations of federal policy that offset
111
the adverse environmental effects of the proposed action.
Methods of Environment Impact Assessment Analysis
The increasing use of environmental impact assessment in the appraisal of major projects,
programmes and policies has led to considerable research into the development of methods
to aid analysis. There is no single approved method for an EIA study. Therefore, what is
important is the ability to think in a systematic way
1) to understand the interaction of the environment & technological change
2) to meet the needs of the development managers, and
3) to follow the fundamental process of preparing of EIA
Most impact analysis methods can be divided into the following seven types.
1. ad hoc methods 2. overlays
3. Checklist 4. networks
5. Matrices 6. quantitative or index methods
7. models

112
Ad hoc methods
This is the most common approach to impact assessment. Basically, ad hoc methods
indicate broad areas of likely impacts by listing composite environmental parameters
(for example, flora and fauna) likely to be affected by a development.
Ad hoc methods involve assembling a team of specialists to identify impacts in their
area expertise. In this method, each environmental area e.g. air, water etc., are taken
separately and the nature of the impact such as no effect, short or long term, reversible
or irreversible etc. are considered. Ad hoc methods are for rough assessment of total
impact giving the broad areas of possible impact and the general nature of these
possible impacts. For example, the impacts on animal and plant life may be stated as
minimal but adverse, whereas, socio-economic impact may be stated as significant but
extremely beneficial.

113
Overlays
Overlays describe well-developed approaches used in planning and landscape
architecture. These techniques are based on the use of a series of overlay maps describing
environmental factors or land features (e.g. physical, biological, social, aesthetic etc.). By
overlaying these maps, areas possessing a preferred combination of these variables can be
identified within the project area boundaries, the impacted areas, and their relative
geographical location.
The overlay approach is generally effective selecting alternatives and identifying
certain types of impacts; however it cannot be used to quantify impacts or to identify
secondary and tertiary interrelationships.

114
Checklists
Checklists, four broad categories of which can be defined, represent one of the basic
methodologies used in environmental impact assessment. Simple checklists are a list of
parameters; however, no guidelines are provided on how environmental parameter data
to be measured and interpreted. Descriptive checklists include an identification of
environmental parameters and guidelines on how parameter data are to be measured.
Scaling checklists are similar to descriptive checklists, with the addition of information
basic to subjective scaling of parameter values. Scaling-weighting checklists represent
scaling checklists with information provided as to subjective evaluation of each
parameter with respect to every other parameter. Checklists are an advance on ad hoc
methods in that they list environmental, social and economic components in mopre
detail.

115
Networks
These methodologies work from a list of project activities to establish cause-condition-
effect relationships. They are an attempt to recognize that a series of impacts may be
developed by a project action. Their approaches generally define a set of possible
networks & allow the user to identify impacts by selecting and tracing out the
appropriate project actions.
Networks are based on known linkages within systems. Thus, actions associated with a
project can be related to both direct and indirect impacts, For example, impacts on one
environmental factor may affect another environmental or socio-economic factor and
such interactions are identified and listed on a network diagram. This diagram,
subsequently, acts as a guide to impact identification and the presentation of results.

116
Matrices
Matrix methods are basically generalized checklists where usually one dimension of a
matrix is a list of environmental, social and economic factors likely to be affected by a
proposal. The other dimension is a list of actions associated with development. These
relate to both the construction and operational phases. Impacts are identified by marking
cells representing a likely impact resulting from the interaction of a aspect of the
development with an environmental feature.
Quantitative or index methods
These methods are based on a list of factors thought to be relevants to a particular
proposal and which are differentially weighted for importance. Likely impacts are
identified and assessed. Impact results are transformed into a common measurement
unit, for example a score on a scale of environmental quality.
The scores and the factor weightings are multiplied and the resulting scores added to
provide an aggregate impact score, by this means beneficial and harmful impacts can be
summed and total scores compared. Alternatively, all impact scores for two alternative
sites can be aggregated and compared. The alternative giving the ‘best’ score is the
preferred option.
Models
Recently, considerable attention has focused on the use of systems modeling in impact
analysis. However, the development of models for assessing particular projects is at an
early stage. There are few examples of models utilized in the assessment of the wide
variety of impacts resulting from most major projects. Usually, only a particular117
impact
of great significance or a number of key impacts modeled.
Principles in managing EIA
Important principles in managing an EIA may be summarized as:
1. focus on the main issues;
2. involve the appropriate persons and groups;
3. link information to decisions about the project;
4. present clear options for the mitigation of impacts and for sound environmental
management;
5. provide information in a form useful to the decision makers.

118
 What
is
ISO
ISO stands for International organization for standardization. It was founded in
1946 in Geneva, Switzerland. Its mandate is to promote the development of
International standards to facilitate the exchange of goods and services worldwide.
Recognizing the importance of quality systems, the ISO has developed a series of
standards, which is popular as ISO9000. These International standards were jointly
developed by all ISO member countries and are being adopted throughout the world.
The ISO9000 is a series of standards in Quality management systems, which can be
adopted by all types of organization belonging to the government.public, private
Or joint sectors, producing and supplying all kinds of goods, services and software.
These standards are generic and not specific to any particular product. They can be used
for managing the quality of output of manufacturing and service industries. These
standards were first published in 1987. The aim was to effectively document quality
management system requirements which needed to be implemented to attain customer
satisfaction. The implementation of ISO 9000
Guides in building quality into products and/or services by preventing deficiencies
During design, production, installation and servicing processes instead of making
119
expensive post-production inspections and warranty claims and reworking.
These standards were revised for the first time in 1994. Based on actual
experiences of several thousand companies, these standards were revised
again. The improved version came in 2000. The latest version would
contain the following three main standards :
Standards : ISO9000-2000
Title : Quality management Systems– Fundamentals and
vocabulary
Scope : Provide fundamentals of quality management systems
and specifies quality management terms and definitions.
Standards : ISO9001-2000
Title : Quality management Systems– Requirements
Scope : specifies requirements for a quality management system
where an organization needs to demonstrate its capability to
meet customer requirements for products and/or services and
assessment of that capability by internal and external parties.
Standards : ISO9004-2000
Title : Quality management Systems– Guidance for performance
120
improvement
Scope : provide guidance on quality management systems as a means
for continual improvement of processes that contribute to
the satisfaction of an organization’s customers and other
interested parties.

121
Environment Management Systems :
The ISO completed the quality management system(ISO9000) in 1987.
Their worldwide success, along with an increased emphasis on
environmental issues, they decide to develop environmental management
standards. In 1991 the ISO formed the Strategic Advisory Group on
Environment(SAGE), which led to the formation of Technical
Committee(TC) 207 in 1992. The mission of TC207 is to develop
standards for an environment management system(EMS).
TC 207 has established six sub-committees :
1) Environmental management systems
2) Environmental auditing
3) Environmental labeling
4) Environmental performance evaluation
5) Life-cycle assessment and
6) Terms and definitions

122
ISO 14000
The ISO 14000 document is titled 'Environmental Management System-
General Guidelines on Principles, Systems and Supporting Techniques '.
It outlines system elements, with advice on how to initiate, implement,
improve and sustain the system. By following its guidelines and the core
elements of the EMS specification-ISO 14001-your organisation will
have a framework to balance and integrate environmental and economic
interests. Doing so will improve your competitive advantage.

ISO 14000 stipulates a set of 10 management principles for organisations

considering an environmental management system. These are:

1. Recognise that environmental management is one of the topmost

priorities of any organisation.
2. Establish and maintain communications with interested parties-both
internal and external.
123
3. Determine legislative requirements and environmental aspects
associated with your activities, products and services.
4. Get everyone in the organisation to commit to environmental
protection and clearly assign responsibilities and accountability.
5. Promote environmental planning throughout the life cycle of the
product and the process.
6. Establish a management discipline for achieving targeted
performance.
7. Provide the right resources and sufficient training to achieve
performance targets.
8. Evaluate performance against policy, environmental objectives and
targets, and make improvements wherever possible.
9. Establish a process to review, monitor and audit the environmental
management system to identify opportunities for improving
performance.
10. Encourage vendors to also establish ,environmental management
systems.
124
Benefits of an Environmental Management System

What does ISO 14000 say regarding the benefits to an organisation if

the latter implements an effective environmental management system?
Corporations and organisations can

1. protect human health and environment from the potential impacts of

their activities, products and services.
2. assist in maintaining and improving the quality of the environment.
3. meet customers' environmental expectations.
4. maintain good public and community relations.
5. satisfy investor criteria and improve access to capital.
6. provide insurance at a reasonable cost.
7. gain an enhanced image and market share.
8. satisfy vendor certification criteria.
9. improve cost control.
10. limit liabilities.
125
11. provide resource conservation.
12. provide effective technology development and transfer.
13. provide confidence to interested parties (and shareholders) that
(a) policies, objectives and targets are met,
(b) emphasis is on prevention first,
(c) reasonable care and regulatory compliance regularly occur, and
(d) system design includes continual improvement.

126
Table ISO 14000 Series

ISO 14000 : Environmental management systems. General guidelines

on principles, systems and supporting techniques.
ISO 14001 : Environmental management systems. Specifications with
guidance for use.
ISO 14004 : Environmental management systems. General guidelines
on principles, systems and supporting techniques.
ISO 14010 : Guidelines for environmental auditing. General
principles of environmental auditing.
ISO 14011/1 : Guidelines for environmental auditing. Audit
procedures-Part I: auditing of environmental
management systems.
ISO 14012 : Guidelines for environmental auditing. Qualification
criteria for environmental auditors.
ISO 14013 : Guidelines for environmental auditing. Management of
environmental management system audit programmes. .
127
ISO 14014 : Guidelines for initial environmental reviews.
ISO 14015 : Guidelines for environmental site assessments.
ISO 14020 : Environmental labelling. Principles of all
environmental labelling.
ISO 14021 : Environmental labelling. Self-declaration,
environmental claims-terms and definitions.
ISO 14022 : Environmental labelling. Symbols.
ISO 14023 : Environmental labelling. Testing and verification
methodologies.
ISO 14024 : Environmental labelling. Practitioner programmes,
guiding principles, practices and certification
procedures of multiple criteria.
ISO 14030 : Environmental performance evaluation.
ISO 14031 : Evaluation of the environmental performance of the
management system and its relationship to the
environment. .
ISO 14040 : Environmental management-life-cycle assessment
principles and guidelines.
128
ISO 14041 : Environmental management-life-cycle assessment.Goal
definition/scope and inventory analysis.
ISO 14042 : Environmental management-life-cycle assessment.
Impact assessment.
ISO 14043 : Environmental management-life-cycle assessment,
Improvement assessment (or evaluation and
interpretation).
ISO 14050 : Terms and definitions.
ISO 14060 : Guidelines for the inclusion of environmental aspects in
product standards.

129
ISO 14001

This standard provides organisations with elements for an environmental

management system (EMS), which can be integrated into other
management systems to help achieve environmental and economic
goals. It describes the requirements for registration and/or self-
declaration of an organisation's EMS. Demonstration of the successful
implementation of the system can be used to assure other parties that an
appropriate EMS is in place. It was written to be applicable to all types
and sizes of organisations and to accommodate diverse geographical,
cultural and social conditions. As previously mentioned, the
requirements are based on the process and not on the product. It does,
however, require commitment to the organisation's EMS policy,
applicable regulations and continual improvement.

130
There are four sections to the standard-scope, normative reference,
definitions and EMS requirements. "There i$ also an informative annex.
The standard is divided into six parts and has a total of 18 requirements.
The guidance of ISO 14000 on the development and implementation of
environmental management systems and principles, including their
coordination with other management systems, is applicable to any
organisation interested in having or improving an EMS. The guidelines
are for voluntary use as an internal management tool. They build on the
core elements of ISO 14001 and also include additional elements
important to a comprehensive environmental management system.

131
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS-REQUIREMENTS
Contents
1. Scope
2. Normative References 3. Definitions
4. EMS Requirements
4.1 General Requirements
4.2 Environmental Policy
4.3 Planning
4.3.1 Environmental Aspects
4.3.2 Legal and other Requirements
4.3.3 Objectives and Targets
4.3.4 Environmental Management Programme(s)
4.4 Implementation and Operation
4.4.1 Structure. and Responsibility
4.4.2 Training, Awareness and Competency
4.4.3 Communication
4.4.4 EMS Documentation
132
4.4.5 Document Control
 4.4.6 Operational Control
4.4.7 Emergency Preparedness and Response
4.5 Checking and Corrective Action
4.5.1 Monitoring and Measuring
4.5.2 Non-conformance and Corrective and Preventive Action
4.5.3 Records
4.5.4 EMS Audit
4.6 Management Review

133
NOTIFICATION ON ENVIRONMENT IMPACT
ASSESSMENT
With the recent liberalization of industrial policy and series of
economic reforms initiated during the recent years, it has become
desirable to bring the major developmental projects within the
purview of environmental impact assessment with a view to have
sustainable development. In view of this, a notification on
Environmental Impact Assessment of developmental projects was
issued by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
India on 27th January, 1994 which was, subsequently, amended on 4th
May, 1994 to make it more effective. Some of the salient features of
the amended notification are as follows:
(i) Mainly large projects involving hazardous operaticns or processes
which are having significant pollution potential are covered in this
notification.
(ii) Projects earmarked for small scale sector having an investment
below Rs.1crore have been kept out of the purview of the notification.
134
(iii) Site clearance will be considered for site specific project such as
mining, pit-head thermal power stations, hydro-electric and river
valley projects including flood control, ports and harbours (excluding
minor ports) and exploration of major minerals in areas above 500
ha.
(iu) Time frame not exceeding 90 days has been prescribed for
environmental appraisal of the projects.
(v) The Committee of Experts will examine the projects referred to
the ministry of Environment and Forests.
(vi) Public hearing system has been introduce specially for the
controversial projects or those likely to have significant
environmental ramifications.

135
6. Pesticides (Technical).
7. Petrochemical complexes (Both Olefmic and Aromatic) and Petro-
chemical intermediates such as DMT, Corporation, LAB etc. and
production of basic plastics such as LDPE, HDPE, PP, PVC.
8. Bulk drugs and pharmaceuticals.
9. Exploration for oil and gas and their production, transportation and
storage.
10. Synthetic Rubber.
11. Asbestos and Asbestos products.
12. Hydrocyanic acid and its derivatives.
13. (a) Primary metallurgical Industries (such as production of Iron and
Steel,
Aluminium, Copper, Zinc, Lead and Ferro Alloys).
(b) Electric arc-furnaces (Mini Steel Plants).
14. Chlor-alkali industry.
15. Integrated paint complex including manufacture of resins and basic
raw materials required in the manufacture of paints.
136
16. Viscose staple fibre and filament yearn.
17. Storage batteries integrated with manufacture of codes oflead
and lead antimony alloy.
18. All tourism projects between 200 m-500 meters of High Tide
Line or at locations with an elevation of more than 100
meters with investments of more than Rs. 5
19. Thermal Power plants.
20. Mining projects (major minerals) with leases more than 5
hectares..
21. Highway Project
22. Tarred Roads in Himalayas and/or Forest areas.
23. Distilleries.
24. Raw Skins and Hides.
25. Pulp, paper and newsprint.
26. Dyes.
137
27. Cement.
28. Foundries (individual).
29. Electroplating.
Further, some clarifications regarding the notification are as follows:
(i) A project proponent is required to seek environmental clearance for
proposed expansion/modernisation activity if the resultant pollution load
(air, water and solid) is to exceed the present levels. If it is certified by
the concerned State Pollution Control Board that no increase is likely to
occur in the existing pollution load due to the proposed expansion or
modernisation, the project proponent will not be required to seek
environmental clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
but a copy of such certificate issued by the Pollution Control Board will
have to be submitted for information. In the Public interest, the Impact
Assessment Agency (IAA) reserve the right to review such cases.
(ii) Public hearing could be called for in case of the project involving
large displacement of population or having severe
environment ramification.
138
(iii)Applications seeking environmental clearance should include the
following:
(a) Filled-in questionnaire asprescribed by the IAA from time to time
(20 copies)
(b) EIAIEMP report (20 copies)
(c) Risk Analysis Report (20 copies)
(d) NOC from the concerned State Pollution Control Board.
(e) Linkages for water and power
(f) Summary of project report (one copy)
(g) Rehf.bilitation plan.
Requirement of EIA and Risk Analysis Reports can be dispensed
with by the IAA in case the projects which are unlikely to cause
significant environmental impacts.

139
The project proponent will not be required to seek environmental
clearance from the IAA if the required land for the project had been
acquired and all necessary approvals from the State Govt. including
NOC from the State Pollution Control Boards have been obtained
before 27th January, 1994.
Industries with investment less than Rs. 1 crore which are reserved
for small-scale sector have been kept out of the purview of the
notification.
Mainly the projects with a pollution potential having an investment
of Rs. 50 crores and above will be required to take clearance.

140
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACTS
Introduction. Environmental ethic has become an important part of
our Governmental institutions ever since the decision of the United
Nations at Stockholm in 1972 and the growing social and
environmental consciousness in India. This ethic is being
accommodated into our legal and economic principles. The ethic is
based on the concept, that the human race is part of a community
comprising trees, soil, rocks, animals, air, water and scenery and is
morally bound to assure the community's continued existence while
breathing clean air, drinking unpolluted water and existing in a
quality environment.

141
We often take for granted the air, water and other resources
necessary for our survival. With the tendency to rapid urbanization
and industrialization, use of vehicular traffic and growth of
industries are causing-fast depletion of these resources.
Consequently regulations and laws for protecting air, water and soil
quality have become necessary. The term environmental law is new
but it is fast becoming an important part of our jurisprudence. It
must be remembered however, that as far back as 1306 AD., a royal
proclamation in London attempted to curtail use of coal since its
burning greatly polluted the air with smoke. Violation of the
proclamation was punishable by death.

142
Environmental Acts: The first law directed to protect any part
of our environment in India was the Water (Prevention and control
of Pollution) Act, 1974. This was followed by the Air (Prevention
and control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and the Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986. The main objective of the Water (Prevention and control
of Pollution) Act, 1974 is to check pollution of surface water. It
forbids any person to discharge untreated domestic and or industrial
effluent outside their premises. This act came into force at once in
the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Tripura, West Bengal and in the Union Territories, Other
states can adopt this Act under clause (1) of Article 252 of the
constitution. The Air (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act, 1981
extends to the whole of India and has the objective to check prevent
introduction into the atmosphere of any solid, liquid or gaseous
substance in concentration

143
likely to cause injury to human beings or other biota or property or
environment by any industry or automobile by generally burning
any fuel. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, is a compact Act
to prevent pollution of water, air and noise. This type of Act is
prevailing in Britain and America and has been enforced in India
more or less in the wake of the Bhopal tragedy of December, 1984.

144
Ambient Air
Composition of Air
Air pollution & its categories
Sources of pollution
Types of Pollutants
Adverse effects of Air pollution
Effects of air pollution on Human health,on plants,on animals,on
materials,
Green house effect
Effect of climate change on agriculture
Air quality monitoring & Measurement
Air pollution control
Control of specific gaseous pollutants
Odour control

145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
 AIR POLLUTION
Air Pollution is defined as:
“The presence in the outside atmosphere of one or more
contaminants such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odor, smog or vapor in
quantities, of characteristics and of duration such as to be injurious
to human, plant, or animal life or to the property or which
unreasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life and
property.”

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, defines "Air
Pollutant" and in reference to them defines air pollution. "Air Pollutant"
means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the atmosphere
in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings
or other living creatures or plants or property or environment.

Air pollution is thus the state of environment in which the outer

atmosphere gets contaminated with gases and other materials
155 in
concentration which are harmful to man and environment.
Different types of pollutants are continuously emitted into the
atmosphere and removed by the self-purification process of air. But,
when the rate of pollution exceeds or when the self-purifying capacity by
natural environmental cycles decreases, accumulation of pollutants
causes serious public health problems.

Air is a mixture of gases and moisture with some inert materials. We

cannot find ‘clean air' in any part of the world. When we breathe, not
only oxygen but also other gases and materials enter our respiratory
system. Hence, it would be appropriate to define air pollutants rather
than to define air pollution. 'Air pollutants' are the materials that exist in
such concentrations as to cause unwanted effects.

Sources:
The atmosphere is being polluted by the discharge of emissions
originating from industrial plants, domestic sources, mobile vehicles and
thermal power plants and agricultural wastages. 156
Presence of sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydro
carbons and toxic particulate substances in atmosphere have caused
harmful influence on man and other living beings.

It may be worthwhile to note that there are natural sources of pollution

too. These are substances released from volcano eruptions or forest
fires. But these natural pollutants don't stay long in the atmosphere
since they can be recycled in the biological or chemical cycles. Hence,
they pose only a short-term problem and that too localized.

157
Approximately 95% of earth's air occurs in the lower levels, the
troposphere. In natural state this air contains 78% nitrogen, 21 %
oxygen, 0.4% carbon dioxide plus small amounts of other gases and
water vapors.

Rest (5%) of the earth’s/planet air occurs in the upper levels, the
stratosphere, together with gases like ozone.

158
Pollutants can be conveniently classified into two main groups
 gaseous pollutants
 particulate pollutants

Gaseous Pollutants
These pollutants include substances that are gaseous in nature
at normal temperature and pressure. The most important gaseous
pollutants are
1) carbon monoxide, 2) oxides of sulphur, 3) hydrogen sulphide,
4) hydrocarbons, 5) oxides of nitrogen, 6) ozone and 7) other oxidants.

159
Carbon monoxide:
Source: Automobile Exhaust
Carbon monoxide is released into the atmosphere mainly from the automobile exhaust.
Next to carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide is the most abundant pollutant in the urban
atmosphere. Concentrations of carbon monoxide vary depending upon the density of
motor traffic. However, carbon monoxide is usually present in amounts far below the
threshold concentration in areas where traffic is less.

Sulphur dioxide:
Source: Sulphur bearing fossil fuels
Sulphur dioxide is one of the principal contaminants of air. It has its origin in the
combustion of sulphur-bearing fossil fuels. It is also present in appreciable quantities in
air where coal is used as a fuel, e.g. electric power plants. Sulphur dioxide is also
released from smelters where sulphur-bearing ore is roasted, e.g. copper, lead and zinc
smelting industries. Oil refineries, sulphuric acid manufacturing industries, fertilizer
industries, and paper and pulp industries emit significant amounts of sulphur dioxide.
Since sulphur dioxide is readily absorbed by water surfaces, soil and vegetation,
deterioration and corrosion affect metals, paper, paints, leather, textiles, cement and
other building materials. 160
Hydrogen sulphide and organic sulphide
Source: Manufacture of Coke, Paper & Viscous rayon
Generally, sulphides cause odour nuisances when present even in very low
concentrations. However, they are not released in appreciable quantities by industrial
operations since the effluents are treated before exposure to the atmosphere. Natural gas
refining, manufacture of coke, and paper, distillation of tar and petroleum, manufacture
of viscose rayon and some other chemical processes' produce hydrogen sulphide.
Hydrogen sulphide is reported to have killed many municipal workers engaged in
sewage work.

Hydrogen fluoride
Source: Aluminium Smelting Industries
Hydrogen fluoride and other volatile fluorides are considered serious pollutants even
are present in very small concentrations by volume. Fluorides are liberated mainly from
aluminum-smelting industries. Manufacture of phosphate fertilizers, ceramics and
certain foundry operations contribute to fluorides. Hydrogen fluoride and silicon
tetrafluoride are toxic for certain plants. This accumulates in leaves of plants and causes
animal fluorosis. Leaves and flowers of many plants are extremely susceptible to
fluorides. Hence, this is a major problem for agricultural units located in the vicinity of
161
aluminum processing industries. Moreover, fluorides have the capacity to etch glass and
Hydrogen chloride
Concentration of hydrogen chloride in the atmosphere is much less. However, higher
concentrations can cause damage to vegetation and to property.

Oxides of nitrogen
Source: Automobile Exhaust
The primary source of oxides of nitrogen is automobile exhaust. This is produced as a
by-product in some chemical industries, such as in the manufacture of nitric acid,
sulphuric acid by chamber process, and manufacture of nylon intermediates. The oxides
of nitrogen are the second most abundant atmospheric pollutants and are extremely
dangerous to human health. The effects are sometimes more severe than those in the
case of carbon monoxide.
Aldehydes and organic acids
Source:
Incomplete combustion of petroleum fuels and incomplete oxidation of lubricating oils
form aldehydes and organic acids. Combustion of natural gas may also lead to
formation of these materials.
162
All the gaseous pollutants above primary pollutants. These pollutants are
emitted and as such are not found in the atmosphere. In contrast to these
primary pollutants, there are secondary pollutants, which are formed in
the atmosphere. For example, nitrogen oxides produced in the
combustion of petroleum and other fuels emitted in the atmosphere yield
ozone in the presence of Sunlight. The ozone produced reacts with
hydrocarbons to form a series of compounds, such as aldehydes, ketones,
organic acids and proxy compounds. This type of Photochemical reaction
usually occurs in smog. The word smog denotes a mixture of smoke and
fog. During a smog, concentrations of ozone and oxidant materials are
found to be high. According to the Haagan Smit theory, ultraviolet rays
in the sunlight break the nitrogen dioxide molecule to form nitric oxide
and atomic oxygen.
Many attempts have been made to reduce the level of ozone in the
atmosphere. Actually, if the amount of hydrocarbons released in the
atmosphere is reduced, then the ozone formed will be utilized in the
oxidation of nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide. But, unfortunately,
163 the
levels of ozone have not decreased and the puzzle remains unsolved.
Particulate Pollutants
Air-borne particulate materials consist of both solid and liquid particles. The particulate
pollutants may be classified according to their nature and size, as follows:
Fume
The size of these particles are less than 1 micron. Fumes are formed from particles of
metals and metallic oxides by condensation of vapors by sublimation, distillation,
calcinations and by other chemical processes and chemical reactions.
Mist
Condensation of vapour forms a liquid particle known as mist.
Spray
Liquid particle obtained from the parent liquid by the mechanical disintegration
processes, such as atomization, is known as spray.
Smoke
Smoke are found by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials and formed by
destructive distillation. Smoke the chart shows the approximate size ranges of both
gaseous and particulate pollutants.
Particulate contaminants contain about twenty two metallic elements. The most
abundant elements are silicon, calcium, sodium, aluminum and iron. Considerable
amounts of lead, zinc, copper, magnesium and manganese are also present. 164
Air pollutants can be primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide (all
formed from the combustion of fossil fuels), CFC and particulate
matter. Secondary pollutants are acid rain and ozone.

Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide combine with water in the

atmosphere and react with sunlight forming acid droplets. These acid
droplets constitute Acid Rain.

165
Prevention & Control:
Prevention of Air pollution is not as simple as explained in words. It is impracticable to
provide at reasonable cost all the growing needs & amenities of modern life without
causing some pollution of the air. However, much of the pollution could be prevented
without undue cost by careful planning & siting of industries, better design equipment
and better operation of the equipment.
There are three major means of controlling pollution:
• Fuel selection & utilization
• Process change or equipment
• Site selection & toning
• Legal controls

166
International Efforts in Controlling Air Pollution:
Air pollution is a problem at local or national level but sometime it may
emanate in one country and may engulf neighboring countries.

It seems that earliest effort at air pollution control was made by the
1957-58 WHO Conference. It is know as "Clean Air Conference".
Later a symposium was held on Epidemiology of Air Pollution at the
regional office of WHO for Europe in 1966. The 1972 Stockholm
Conference was the first major efforts to discuss control of pollution
including air pollution.

In 1974 some of the major industrial countries of the world

( 19 European countries, Australia, Canada & Japan) convened a meeting
for the control of air pollution. In this meeting two basic principles
were evolved:

1. Polluter must pay for pollution, and

2. Transfrontier air pollution be controlled. 167
The Principle that 'polluter must pay for pollution' laid down that the
industry where pollution originates must pay for its control. The second
concept says that no single state should be taken into account as a unit of
protection against air pollution but the aim should be the welfare and
preservation of the health of not only of people of one state but of people
throughout the world. And protection should be of total environment for
the good of mankind and other living beings of the planet.

India's Efforts in Controlling Air Pollution

Air pollution has been caused by developments that typically occur as
countries become industrialized: growing cities, increasing traffic, rapid
economic development and industrialization, and higher levels of energy
consumption. The migration of population to urban areas, increase in
consumption patterns and unplanned urban and industrial development
have led to the problem of air pollution. In India, air pollution is
widespread in urban areas where vehicles are the major contributors and
in other areas with high concentration of industries and thermal168power
plants.
Management of Air Pollution
The poor air quality specially of urban India shows a dismal picture.
Whatever little legal development took place up to the 1990s, it was
focused on stationary sources of pollution like industries and thermal
power plants - and remained almost blind to air pollution crisis from
mobile sources like vehicles. Regulations to deal with vehicular
emissions came: into force only in 1990s.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act came into being in
1981. The Act provided for prevention, control and abatement of air
pollution. In areas notified under this act, no industrial pollution
causing activity could come up without the permission of the
concerned state pollution Control Board. But this act was not strong
enough to play either a precautionary or a corrective role. After the
Bhopal disaster, a more comprehensive Environment -Protection Act
(EPA) was passed in 1986.

169
 WATER POLLUTION
Water of high quality is essential to human life and water of acceptable
quality is essential for agricultural, domestic and commercial uses. In
addition most recreation is water based therefore major activities having
potential effects on surface water are certain to be of appreciable concern
to the consumers who support these activities.
Water pollution may be defined in a number of ways:
1) as the adverse change in the composition or condition of water such
that it becomes less suitable for the purposes for which it would be
suitable in its natural state. The changes include physical, chemical and
biological changes. Water pollution nowadays is considered not only in
terms of public health but also in terms of conservation, aesthetics and
preservation of natural beauty and resources.
2) The concentrations of particular pollutants in water for sufficient period
of time to cause certain effects. If the effects are health related such as
those caused caused by pathogenic bacteria the term Contamination170is
Physical parameters include colour, odour, temperature,
solids(residues), oils and grease. Many types of activities could
influence the physical properties of water.
Chemical properties of water: It is organic and in-organic. In-organic
properties include salinity, hardness, pH, acidity, alkalinity and the
content of iron, maganese, chlorides, sulphates, sulfides, heavy
metals(Hg, Pb, Cr, Cu,Zn), nitrogen(organic, ammonia, nitrite,naitrate)
and phosphorous. Salinity and chloride contents are the measure of the
salt in water. Hardness is caused primarily by divalent metallic-cations
that have soap consuming potential, the major are calcium and
magnesium. Nitrogen and phosphorus contents are of interest due to
their nutrient characteristics.
Some in-organic chemicals (like cadmium lead and mercury) may
have grave consequences to human health. Some have severe effects
on the water environment(as phosphorous and dissolved oxygen)

171
Sources
The sources of water pollution are numerous.
1) Industrial effluents These contain both organic and inorganic
hazardous materials and non-biodegradable ones too. Industrial effluents,
when discharged through the sewage system into rivers result in
pollution of rivers. Heated industrial effluents can drastically alter the
ecology of a stream or lake.

172
2) Municipal sewage. Most municipal sewages receive no treatment before
discharge. These in combination with industrial wastes pose sewer public health
problems. It is a point to be noted that since population growth is increasing the
quantity of waste water is also increasing in addition to the production of large
quantities of sewage. Sewage contains decomposable organic matter and exerts an
oxygen demand on the receiving waters. Treatment of sewage deposits the suspended
materials at the bottom, known as 'sludge', and the liquid waste contains ions of sodium,
potassium, calcium, ammonium, manganese, chloride, nitrite, nitrate, bicarbonate,
phosphate and sulphate in dissolved condition. The common organic materials found in
sewage are soaps, synthetic detergents, fatty acids, esters, proteinous matters such as
amines, amino acids, amides and amino sugars. In addition, it also contains numerous
microorganisms, some of which may be pathogenic in character.

3) Agricultural practices. Drainage from husbandry causes heavy pollution of

some water courses. Plant nutrients, insecticides and pesticides are also introduced into
water courses by agricultural practices. Sediment from land erosion containing mostly
inorganic materials is contributes in water pollution.
Underground water pollution occurs by the substances leached from fertilizers spread
over the land and from silage making. The pollution of water may also arise from the
disposal of industrial wastes. 173
Causes:
Pollution may be caused by materials or by biological organisms. The first category
involves the following organic and inorganic contaminants: acids, alkalis,
carbohydrates, coal, dyes, fats, soaps, waxes, gases,)toxic metals, oils, proteinous
matters, resins, rubber, synthetic detergents, and various other pollutants including
radioactive materials and heated effluents that impart thermal loading on receiving
waters. The second category includes biological organisms, such as bacteria, viruses,
plants and animals.
Acids: Both organic and inorganic acids are discharged into rivers in the form of
industrial effluents. Mineral acids are produced during the manufacture of chemicals,
fertilizers, textiles, mining. Organic acids are discharged in the manufacture of rayon,
distilling, dyeing, manufacture of leather, chemicals, etc. Since organic acids are
mild, they are given less importance from the pollution aspect and only inorganic
acids are studied carefully due to their toxic nature. The main constituent of acid
wastes is sulphuric acid. In addition to this, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid and
phosphoric acid are also seen.

174
These acids cause damage to metals or concrete structures, pumps etc. by their
corrosive activity. Moreover, they produce hydrogen sulphide gas when they come in
contact with the sludge and mud of rivers. The lower the pH value, the greater is the
amount of hydrogen sulphide liberated, leading to a higher degree of atmospheric
pollution. Acidic pollutants also destroy micro-organisms and thus inhibit self-
purification of the stream. Fish and other aquatic animals are adversely affected by a
sudden change in pH conditions of the river which may be acidic or alkaline.
Alkalis: Damage to rivers and streams is caused by alkalis by alteration of pH values,
resulting in a break in the natural buffer system. Chemical manufacturing wastes,
liquors, wool scouring wastes are the principal contributors of alkalis. The alkali wastes
raise the pH values up to 12. They behave similar to acids in destroying bacterial and
other micro-organisms so as to inhibit the self-purification of a stream. Fish and other
aquatic life are also affected by the sudden rise in pH.
Coal: Coal is a common substance and is found in the effluents of coal-washing plants
in a finely divided suspended.
Dyes: Nowadays thousands of dyes are prepared and find their way into the streams
through the discharge of effluents from dyeing and printing industries, textile industries
from paper-and-ink manufacturing industries. The dyes are prepared from coal-tar
hydrocarbons, such as benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, toluene, xylenes, etc. Dye
effluents impart colour to the water. Though the dyes are not harmful, they create
aesthetic problems. Moreover, they also add to the BOD (biochemical oxygen175 demand)
of water.
Fats, soaps and waxes: Fats are the animal and vegetable oils. Fats are insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents, such as ether, chloroform, etc. Fats and soaps are
discharged from oil and fat .refining, soap manufacturing and laundering processes. The
lower fatty acids produce unpleasant, rancid odours. Soaps commonly occur in sewage,
laundry and textile wastes. Soaps are metallic salts of the higher fatty acids. Both
sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water while soaps of calcium, aluminum,
manganese, lead and zinc are insoluble. Sodium and potassium soaps are used for
domestic purposes while other metallic soaps are used as industrial soaps.
Waxes comprise both natural and synthetic waxes and are found in the effluents of
paper and textile industries. They are the esters of higher fatty acids.
Gaseous pollutants: This category includes ammonia, free chlorine, hydrogen sulphide,
ozone and phospine. Ammonia is liberated during the manufacture of chemicals,
fertilizers, gas and coke. Sewage and other nitrogenous organic matters contribute and
increase the ammonia content to dangerous levels. Free chlorine results from the
process of textile bleaching, paper mills and laundries. Hydrogen sulphide occurs due to
the bacterial action and pH alterations during the discharge of viscose rayon wastes and
sulphate and sulphite-containing materials.
The presence of excess amount of free chlorine in streams or rivers has to be avoided
because:
• free chlorine is a powerful irritant;
• it causes fatal pulmonary oedema, a disease of the lungs in man; 176
• it completely destroys the aquatic life including fish;
• it is corrosive to metals, building structures, etc.
Hydrogen Sulphide has strong smell. Most of the odour nuisance in rivers arises due the
presence of sulphides only. Hydrogen sulphide cause bronchial irritation and oedema of
the lungs in a man.
Ozone is highly toxic to fish.
The other minor gaseous pollutants are CO2 & CO.
Pesticides: Pesticides have great value in the Control of insect-born diseases. These are
used in homes, industries and shops and by farmers, gardeners & foresters. In
agriculture, these chemicals are used to protect plants.

Fertilizers & Farm Wastes

Toxic Metals: The primary metals considered to be toxic are lead, arsenic, copper,
cadmium, mercury & nickel.
Oils: The presence of oil in a water course is undesirable since it creates aesthetic
problems. It has a tendency to spreads over the surface of water; diffusion of oxygen
into water is inhibited and reaeration of water is affected. Absorption of oxygen from air
into water depends on the thickness of the film formed by oil.

177
Proteins & Carbohydrates: The main component of proteins are amino acids. Apart
from Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen & nitrogen, proteins contain sulphur & phosphorous.
Egg albumin, gelatine, casein, keratin, glutenin are some example of proteins.
Plastics & rubbers:
Dissolved solids: Chlorides
Synthetic Detergents:
Other inorganic & organic Pollutants:
Mercury & mercuric compounds
Cadmium & Cadmium Compounds
Polyetilorinated biphenyls
Phenols & Phenolic Compounds
Poly nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
Other hydrocarbons
Aldehydes
Suspended matter
Heated effluents
Radioactive substance
Biological pollutants: Bacteria, viruses, Algae
Other Nuisance organism: Colour, Turbidity, foam, Taste odour.
178
Noise Pollution:
Noise is unwanted, unpleasant sound. We cannot live without sound,
yet too much of sound is unwanted. The unit for measuring sound is
decibel (dB). Sound of 20 dB is whisper; 60 dB is normal
conversation, 100 dB is conversation in running train; 120 dB is
thunder and 140 dB is the level when sound becomes unbearable and
irritating. Noise inside many factories exceeds 100 dB, aero plane
creates noise of 150 dB. This is what constitutes Noise Pollution.
Attitude and annoyance threshold are determining factors to determine
whether a sound is a noise. Degree of annoyance may not necessarily
be related to the intensity of sound and personal attitude is an
important influencing factor. A loud music may be liked or even
considered melodious by a person whereas very feeble sound may be
noise for another person. Noise pollution in such cases becomes
subjective.

179
Noise pollution affects the health physiologically, psychologically
and in behavior sense; with excessive noise, human beings become
more irritable. It is estimated that noisy conditions result in lower
efficiency and increased errors by the workers
.
The effects, therefore, are psychological and physiological.
Psychological effects may lead to tension and speech interference.
Physiological effects lead to deafness. If a person is exposed to
noise level about 100 dB continuously, as in workshops or exposure
to jet aircraft, hearing defects become detectable. Also, the medical
experts are of the opinion that fire crackers and continuous
explosives lead to stomach ulcers and respiratory disorders. Further,
noise becomes nuisance when one is either under meditation or
enjoyment recreation.

180
SOURCES OF NOISE.
Major sources of noise are:
(i) Industry;
(ii) Road traffic;
(iii) Trains;
(iv) Aircraft
(v) Construction work
(vi) Loud speakers

CONTROL OF NOISE POLLUTION :

Noise pollution can be controlled by:
(i) Devising noise control devices;
(ii) Creating noise free zones;
(iii) Legal means.
It is possible to install a machinery which is less noise producing. It is
also possible to repair the machinery in time before it starts making
noise. Use of silencers is another method. Noise free zones do exist
181
outside hospitals, schools and few other places.
Legal Means
Under Indian legal system, unlike many countries of world, there exists
no law that deals exclusively with noise control. However, there are
provisions for noise control in various other Acts:

In Indian Penal Code 1860 (Under section 268) there is provision to

prosecute anyone causing public nuisance. Noise is actionable as public
nuisance. The nuisance caused by noise is not considered as a serious
offence under Indian Penal Code.

A notional punishment is prescribed for this type of nuisance. In any

case, Indian Penal Code is not deterrent or preventive so far as nuisance
action is concerned

182
POLICE ACT OF 1861
Under this Act, police is authorized to direct or permit processions,
etc on public roads or streets.
The police has the authority to regulate the extent to which music
loudspeakers can be used. Violation of conditions of permission can
lead to penalty of fine not exceeding two hundred rupees.

RAILWAY ACT OF 1890

This Act has no provision against any action for noise caused by rail
engine or carriages. The Railway Act of 1890 has been repealed by
the Railway Act of 1989 but the new Act also does not have any
provision for dealing with noise.

AIRCRAFT ACT OF 1934

Under this Act, there is no provision relating to noise control caused
by aircrafts. However, under Aircraft Rules 1946, Government can
make rules to control noise for safeguarding the health of the public.
183
There are noise restrictions at the airports but no airline has been
penalized for violating the regulations

MOTOR VEHICLE ACT OF 1939

Under this Act, rules can be made for reducing noise caused by
vehicles. But rules under this Act do not contain any effective control of
noise pollution. This Act has been repealed by new Act of 1988. Under
the Act of 1988 and Central Motor Vehicle Rules of 1989 there is a
provision for penalty for violation of noise pollution standards. There is
punishment for the first offence with a fine of one thousand rupees and
for any second or subsequent offence, a fine of two thousand rupees.

FACTORY ACT OF 1948

This Act does not have any provision for noise control in the factories.
In Factory Act of 1948 there. is a provision for protection from nuisance
that may include noise. It is appropriate if Factory Act incorporates safety
provisions against noise pollution.
184
AIR ACT OF 1981
This Act does not include regulation in respect of Noise Control.
However, 1987 Amendment of
this Act recognizes noise as an air pollutant. The Amendment defines "air
pollutant as any solid, liquid and gaseous substance including noise,
present in the atmosphere in such concentrations as may be or tend to be
injurious to human being or other living creatures or plants or property or
environment". In pursuance of powers vested with the Central or State
Pollution Control Boards, these boards have laid down noise standards.

EPA OF 1986
Under section 6 of the Environment Protection Act (1986), the central
government is empowered by issuing notifications in the gazette for
making rules providing "for the maximum allowable limits of
concentration of various environmental pollutants (including noise) for
different areas".
185
Sustainable Development :
Environment management is the most important, yet it is most
neglected discipline. It concerns life support system and is closely
linked with development and economic growth. The industrial
countries have achieved high level of development and decent
standard of living at the cost of environment and depletion f natural
resources. The question is how long this kind of development will be
sustainable?
The developing countries are also contributing to environment damage.
Thus both the industrialized countries and developing countries,
damage, deplete and pollute the environment. The developing
countries need growth to fulfill the basic needs of their people, but
should they repeat the mistakes of industrial countries.
The basic question that haunts us is what is the pattern of growth and
development we must follow? For this we need changes at local,
national, regional and global levels together with an economic and
social transformation at the levels of individuals and communities.
186
Sustainable development is a concept, it underscores that rate of
consumption or use of natural resources should approximate the rate at
which these resources can be substituted or replaced. It further requires
that a nation or society is able to satisfy its requirement social,
economic and others- without jeopardizing the interest of future
generation.

It is believed that countries of North(developed countries) use too many

of natural resources and such practice can not continue long.

Realization must come to us that nature today is fragile and we have

almost reached a critical threshold beyond which ecological decline
would lead to disaster. It means we should go for sustainable
development that will lead to reducing poverty of people by means that
minimize non-renewable resource depletion, environment damage and
social instability. It requires shifting from reliance on one resource to
another.
187
It is known that population growth and unsustainable economic
development (industrial and agriculture practices) are effecting the
environment and are cause for concern especially in developing countries.
Energy is derived from non-renewable and renewable resources and the
former are in the process of depletion.

Non-renewable resources are :-- These are fossil fuels  Oil, Coal
and natural gas. It took millions of years to build up these resources.

Renewable resources are :- solar energy, wind energy, water or

hydropower energy and biomass ( wood, cattle dung and human
excreta, agricultural residues, biogases and other byproduct of agro-
based industries such as paper mills sugar mills etc)

Approximately 80% of the world energy is produced by fossil fuels.

However France, Japan and many other advanced countries establish
Nuclear reactors which produce enough energy to meet 70% of country’s
188
energy requirement.
The environmental effects of the use of various fuels are of serious
concern owning to increasing consumption levels.

Pollutants associated with the combustion of fossil fuels are green

house gases like CO2, SO2, Nox , CO and fly-ash pose a major threat to
environmental quality and human health. The problem is compounded
due to the poor quality of Indian coal. In addition to emissions of gasses,
land requirements for the disposal of fly-ash generated in thermal power
plants is a major concern. Industrial & vehicular emissions have taken
serious proportion of these gases in urban areas. Petrol-driven vehicles
are the major source of CO emissions while diesel-driven vehicles are
the major source of Nox. Indoor air pollution due to the domestic
consumption of both traditional and commercial fuels is also significant.
Sometimes, the total human exposure to many important pollutants may
be much more substantial in the poor managed homes than in the
outdoor air.

189
The Nuclear option comes with its own set of problems. Uncertainties
surrounding the safety and economics of radioactive waste disposal and
decommissioning remain. The mishap at Tokaimura in Japan shows that
the danger of a nuclear accident is very real.

Large Hydro- project also create problems like human displacement,

submergence of valuable resources including forests and wildlife habitats,
destruction of estuaries and adverse impacts on downstream hydrology.

190
In this case, UN convened a United Nations Conference on environment
and development (UNCED) at Rio de Janerio(1992). It is called Earth
summit. A clear message came that a new approach to energy
management is required in the form of improving energy
efficiency(improving energy production from primary sources) and
reduction in wastes. At this conference, the participating countries have
committed themselves to achieve stabilization of green house gasses
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level which would prevent dangerous
interference with the climate system. The stabilization requires long term
measures to lower the emission of green house gasses in particular of CO2
from energy use. Kyoto Conference on climate change (in 1997) has
achieved the world’s first climate protection through legally binding targets
for green house gas reduction by the industrialized countries. If
implemented seriously, this would reduce fossil fuel consumption for the
industrialized nations. In the first phase between 2008 and 2012, the
industrialized nations are to reduce green house gas emissions by an
average of 5.2% from 1990 levels. For the European union and several
Eastern European countries the target is 8%, for USA 7% from 191 1990
levels; for Japan, Canada, Hungary and Poland it is 6%.
If the fossil fuels are to be minimized, alternative sources of energy
have to be found. The option that could be pursued is that of using
Renewable Energy which is expected to contribute a major portion
(upto 10%) of the world’s primary energy requirements in the year
2020. Renewable help to reduce emissions. Another way in which
Renewable protect the environment is through the utilization of
waste(biomass).

The Governments and their agencies, the non-government

organizations (NGO), the judiciary, corporate sector and even
individual is now very much concern on matters relating to natural
environment and ecosystem.

Formulation of ISO 14000 and other standards on environment is

an important steps in this direction.
Companies are registering for ISO14000 (pollution control) for
which they have to bring change in organization
structure, employee’s awareness, training etc. 192
Also commendable efforts of International agencies like
UNEP(United nations Environmental program), World Bank, IMF
and UNDP make a strong case for the protection of environment and
for maintaining a sustainable society. Also economist are talking
about environmental concerns, resource management and its
sustainability.

Nature has its own rules and it will take its revenge if its capacity
is stretched too much.

It has now become clear that we will not be able to ‘manage’ the
environmental crises only by adopting newer technology and
confirming to ISO14000 though these are important steps; But what
is more important is change in people attitude, their consumption
patterns, manufacture and marketing practices and get into a
technological world that is less intensive in its use of materials and
energy.
193
And also strategy should be to make the environmental management a
statutory obligation of all developmental projects.

Is environment a part of Total Quality Management(TQM) or

something more? A good environment practice improves corporate
performance. In many industries it has been found that environmental
friendly /eco-friendly practices have enabled companies to do more
savings as for example, the process of recycling the waste by use of
new technologies.

194
3 International Efforts for Environmental Protection
Man's concern for natural environment has always been there but his serious
concern about the issues of resource depletion and degrading
environment/ecosystem began after World War II when industrialization
started vigorously. However, nothing tangible was done to control damage
afflicted to environment till 1960s.
The governments in 1960s especially in developed countries were
undergoing a social change; later such change also started in developing
countries. The social change raised aspirations and hopes of people for
improvement in quality of human life and living standards which in turn
opened up numerous issues relating to development, sustainable
development, economic growth and consumerism; all issues being linked to
environment. Soon people recognized that environment was deteriorating
and the natural resources were depleting due to developmental activities. A
large number of environmental problems surfaced as for example, carbon
dioxide and other green house gases started building up, earth's temperature
started rising, large cities started choking up with pollution, and large
number of species came under heavy stress. In short, environmental
195
problems became critical.
Protection of environment and conservation of natural resources came to
be realized at national and international levels and a concern for ecology
became a watchword. As the concern for environmental problems
increased, the governments institutionalized the environmental issues
through new legislations and regulations. International agencies swung into
action. More comphrensive laws were enacted at national and local levels
and new agencies established to make sure the compliance aspects by
public in general and business and industry in particular.

In the early decades industry, trade and business resisted efforts aimed at
environmental protection and resource conservation because money spent
on such efforts would diminish profit. However, the attitude is changing,
not because of legal action only but also due to realization that cutting
down on raw material and generating less waste could be a financial gain.
Also, there was an International angle to environment which could not be
ignored. It became clear that problems like Ozone Depletion or Global
Warming cannot be tackled at national level alone. Leaders, politicians and
people in general, therefore, started looking up at organizations like196
UN for
environmental issues.
a ) United Nation's Conference on Human Environment, 1972 at
Stockholm.
It marked the beginning of organized international efforts for'
comprehensive programe to safeguard environment
while also promoting economic development. The following two
strategies emerged in this conference.
1. The principles and action plan were evolved for controlling and
regulating human environment.
2. Institutional and financial arrangements were proposed for achieving
the goal for regulating human environment.
This has been called the Magna Carta on environment. It declared:
a) Humans have the fundamental right to freedom, equality and
adequate conditions of life in an environment of quality that permits a
life of dignity and well-being.
b) Human beings have responsibility to protect and improve the
environment for present and future generations.
197
International institutions have been playing a significant role in
creating, developing and implementing international environmental
regimes which no nation can afford to ignore. They are mostly
functioning under the aegis of United Nations. The work of various
International, Regional or National organizations engaged in
environmental issues is supplemented by a large number of NGOs,
notable among these being Greenpeace, World Wildlife Fund, Friends
of Earth, etc.

Two important institutions of UN, FAO and WHO addressed the

issues concerning relationship between environment and food and
those between environment and human health respectively. ILO,
another UN institution, took up the issues relating to environmental
hazards and worker's safety. International Maritime Organization was
established in 1954. It organized international meetings
regulating pollution of the oceans from oil tankers.
198
I t may be noted that all these organizations addressed the issues of
environmental concern that included only pollution and conservation
of wildlife- a narrow focus. In late 1960s and early 1970s issues of
environmental concern attracted the attention of public and NGOs
specially in USA and Europe. It was at this time that Sweden
proposed to UN to hold the Conference to consider the serious
problems of environmental concern. Hence, UN Conference on
Human Environment, Stockholm 1972. The Stockholm Conference
discussed the wide issues of Environment and drew. up an action
program. Later in 1972, all these issues were taken up by UN
General Assembly. The UN Assembly adopted a resolution
establishing United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) at
Nairobi. The Resolution designated June 5 as the World
Environment Day and urged governments and organizations in the
United Nations system to undertake on that day every year
worldwide activities reaffirming their concern for the protection of
the environment.
199
Following Stockholm Conference many governments all over the world
began establishing departments/agencies of environments and ministries
of environments. The South argued that the North had good living
standards which they attained by their consumption style leading to
damage of environment and resources.
Important post Stockholm events are given below:
a) Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, 1974
b) UN-Habitat Conference on Human Settlement in Vancouver, Canada in 1976,
c) World Water Conference in Mardel Plata, Argentina in 1977
d) The UN Desertification Conference held in Nairobi in 1977.
d) Paris Conference, held in 1986 called for saving trees and forests. The
Conference was attended by 36 countries.
Environmental Education Conference
In 1977. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
organized an Intergovernmental Education Conference at Georgia. The
UNEP Executive Director underscored that environmental education
was a matter of life and death and that problems of environment were
200
jeopardizing the development of mankind.
Earth Summit 1992
UN convened a United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) at Rio de Janerio in 1992. It is called Earth
Summit. An eight hundred page document, called Agenda 21, was issued
at this Conference, It contains comprehensive blueprint for governments
on everything from population strategy, management of hazardous wastes,
recycling, energy conservation, renewable energy, business strategies to
role of women in environment.
While the guidelines and the principles proclaimed at Rio Conference are
not legally binding, they carry a strong moral force to ensure their
adoption. The underlying idea of Agenda 21 is that humanity has reached
a point where present policies on development and economic growth have
not been able to tackle the problems of poverty, hunger and living
conditions. They continue to cause continuing resource depletion and
deterioration of ecosystem on which life on this planet depends. If human
beings have to be provided with decent living conditions specially in
developing countries, the management of ecosystem at local, national and
global levels has to be undertaken on priority basis. 201
Earth Summit + 5
Earth Summit of 1992 (Agenda 21) was a milestone in the promotion
of sustainable development and environment. The nations of the
world committed themselves to protect the environment and resource
conservation for sustainable development both at national and global
level. In 1997 UN convened a conference in New York to assess the
progress made in five years since Earth Summit of 1992; this
conference being called as Earth Summit +5.

Earth Summit 2002- Johannesbu'rg Summit

The second world summit on sustainable development was held in
Johannesburg from August 26 to September 4, 2002.
Key outcomes of this summit are:
1) The summit reaffirmed sustainable development as a central
elements of the international agenda and gave a new
impetus to global action to protect environment and fight poverty. It
was decided to establish World Solidarity Fund
202
for eradication of poverty.
2) The linkages between poverty and environment/resource use was
re-examined to strengthen this relationship.
3) Governments agreed to reaffirm the targets and commitments for
action for better implementation of sustainable development.
4)Energy and sanitation issues became important elements of
negotiation than previous international meetings.
5) It was decided to pay special attention and support for
development of Africa.
6) Key role of Civil society and NGO’s was recognized in promoting
partnership among business, Governments and
society. Many partnerships were announced during the Summit.

203
INDIA EFFORTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION:
Introduction
Besides being historically and culturally respectful to environment,
India did recognise and visualise the significance of environmental
protection and resource conservation before the first International meet
on Environment, the Stockholm Conference on Human Environment
was convened by UN in 1972. India's Fourth Plan (1969-74) document
clearly lays down the following:
“Planning for harmonious development recognises the unity of nature
and man. Such planning is possible only on the basis of a
comprehensive appraisal of environmental issues. There are instances
in which timely, specialised advice on environmental aspects could
have helped in project design and in averting subsequent adverse effect
on the environment leading to loss of invested resources. It is
necessary, therefore, to introduce the environmental aspect into our
planning and development”.
204
Constitutional Provision
Within five years of the Stockholm Conference, India amended its
Constitution (the 42nd Constitutional amendment 1976) to include
“Environment Protection” as a constitutional obligation. Article 48A
lays down:
“The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and
to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country”.
Article 51A relates to fundamental duty. This article runs:
“It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the
natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to
have compassion for living creatures”.
Notional Committee on Environment Planning and Coordination
Soon after the Stockholm Conference, India set up a National
Committee on Environment Planning and Coordination (NCEPC). This
committee was concerned with issues relating to appraisal of
development projects, human settlements planning, survey of
ecosystems, like wetland, and spread of environment education. 205
Tiwari Committee on Environment
In 1980, Government of India appointed Tiwari Committee, to make
recommendation on environmental issues. The committee
recommended the following:
a. Comprehensive reviews and reformation of some of the prevalent
Central and State Acts (such as the Insecticides Act, 1968; the
Water (Prevention and Control' of Pollution) Act, 1974; and the
India Forest Act (1927).
b. New legislation for areas of action not covered by the present
laws (such as those concerning toxic substances).
c. The introduction of "Environment Protection" in the Concurrent
List of the Seventh Schedule.

206
The Committee, inter alia, recommended for the establishment of a
separate Department of Environment. Accepting these
recommendations, Department of Environment was set up on
November 1, 1980 by the Government, assigning it the following
functions:
1. To act as nodal agency for environmental protection and eco-
development in the country.
2. To carry out environmental appraisal of development projects
through other ministries/agencies as well as directly.
3. To have administrative responsibility for:
a. Pollution monitoring and regulation.
b. Conservation of critical ecosystems designated as Biosphere
Reserves.
c. Conservation of marine ecosystem.
207
National Committee on Environment Planning
The NCEPC was replaced by a National Committee on Environment
Planning, with the following functions:
1. Preparation of an annual "State of Environment Report" for the
country.
2. Establishing an Environmental Information and Communication
System to propagate environmental awareness through the mass
media.
3. To sponsor environmental research.
4. Arranging public hearings or conferences on issues of
environmental concerns.
The word "Environment" is used in its widest sense. It means all the
external environmental conditions and factors affecting human,
animal and plants. (External factors include climate, water, noise,
temperature, soil, etc.). And the State is empowered to take effective
208
steps to improve environmental factors.
Environment Protection Enactments
After Stockholm Conference, India also embarked on several legislative
measures for the protection of environment and for maintaining
ecological balance. These were: The Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Air (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. These enactments were amended
from time to time to make them more effective.
Another significant step was setting up of independent Ministry of
Environment and Forest at the Central Government level in 1985.
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT 1986
Till 1980s, emphasis seems to have been chiefly to prevent and control pollution. In
1986 the government of India passed a comprehensive Environment Protection Act
(1986) as an aftermath of Bhopal tragedy of 1984 to cover many aspects other than
prevention and control of pollution.
The Environment Protection Act (1986) was passed for the protection of environment,
regulation of discharge of pollutants, handling of hazardous substances, speedy
response in the event of accidents threatening environment and deterrent punishment to
209
those who endanger human environment, safety and health.
It has been claimed that:
a. This Act is not only for protection of environment but it is also more
effective and bold measure to tackle the problem of pollution as
compared to all the previous laws in this regard. Under this Act, the
Central Government has been empowered to take all appropriate
measures to establish an effective machinery to achieve the
objectives of Act.
b. The Act enables the Central Government to “take all such measures”
as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and
improving the quality of the environment and preventing,
controlling and abetting environmental pollution". The Central
Government is also empowered to constitute an authority for
exercising the power vested in it and to frame rules for that purpose.
c. The Act has adopted a new position with regard to the question of
locus stand so that now even a citizen has the right to approach a
Court, provided he has given notice of not less than 60 days of the
alleged environmental offence and his intention to make a complaint
210
to the Central Government or the competent authority.
d. The Act strengthens the penal provisions. The maximum penalties for
contravention of the Act have been increased to imprisonment upto five
years or fine upto one lakh rupees of both. If the failure or
contravention continues beyond a period of one year after the date of
conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a
term which may extend to seven years.
e. The Government has been given the powers to collect samples of air,
water, sailor other substances as evidence at the offences under the Act.
f. A special procedure can be prescribed for handling hazardous
substances and no person can handle such substances except in
accordance with procedure.
g. The Central Government has been vested with powers of entering and
inspecting any place through any person or agency authorised by it.
h. The Act also authorises the Central Government to issue direction for
the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or
process. It also authorises the Central Government to stop or regulate
the supply of electricity or water or any other service directly within
211
obtaining a Court order.
Some people are critical of the Act as they feel that:
“The present Act was enacted to bridge the gaps in the existing legislation on
this subject, since the existing laws generally focus on specific types of
pollution or on specific categories of hazardous substances. Yet some major
areas of environmental hazards are not covered. There are uncovered gaps in
areas of major environmental hazards. There are inadequate linkages in
handling matters of industrial and environmental safety. Control mechanisms
to guard against build up of hazardous substances, especially new chemicals,
in the environment, are weak. Because of a multiplicity of regulatory
agencies, there is a need for an authority which can assume the lead role for
studying, planning and implementing long-term requirements of
environmental safety and to give direction to, and coordinate, a system of
speedy and adequate response to emergency situation threatening the
environment.”
If the authority contemplated by the Central Government continues to be the
existing Pollution Control Boards then it is feared that the entire exercise may
not yield results. This is so because the pollution Control Boards (CPCB) till
now seem to have adopted a soft line vis-a-vis the industry and prefer; to be
212
persuasive rather than punitive
Seventh & Eighth Plan (1985-1990)
The Seventh Five Year Plan's main component in regard to
environment protection are:
a. Pollution monitoring and control.
b. Environmental impact assessment.
c. Resource conservation.
d. Eco-development.
e. Environmental research promotion. Environmental education,
training and awareness.
f. Environmental information.
g. Coordination and liaison with State Government/Union Territories.
h. Environmental policy and law. International cooperation.
i. Strengthening of the organisation structure.
213
EIGHTH PLAN(1992-1997)
Eighth Year Plan further strengthened the Environmental policies. In
the Eighth Plan allocation of funds for the protection of environment
were increased and a state-wise allocation was formulated.
The Government of India set up a cell to ensure effective
implementation of anti-pollution measures and measures for the
protection of environment. India embarked in a big way in the
direction of protection of environment in launching new
programmes. Noteworthy are the projects for cleaning rivers, of
which biggest project relate to cleaning of Ganga and Jamuna. India
has also embarked on the project of afforestation. India became
signatory to Earth Summit 1992.

214
HIGHLIGHTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL INITIATIVES FROM
SIXTH TO TENTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN
Sixth Plan (1980-85)
• New Department of Environment set up.
• Major activities in the areas of water and air pollution control,
EIA, natural living resource conservation, ecological studies by
the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and Zoological Survey of
India (ZSI), environmental information, education, training and
awareness
• A ten year review in respect of appendices on flora for CITES
prepared
• An integrated study of the Ganga basin completed and integrated
River Basin Studies for the Brahmaputra, Indus and Narmada
proposed to be taken up.
• The Wildlife Institute set up in 1982-83 for building up of
215
scientific knowledge on wildlife research
Seventh Plan (1985-1990)
• Significant progress under the Ganga Action Plan, forestry and wildlife,
wasteland development, and island development sectors
• Programmes on waste recycling and prevention of coastal pollution initiated
• EIA of major river valleys and hydroelectric, mining, industrial and thermal
power projects carried out through Environmental Appraisal Committees
• National Forest Policy formulated in 1988 with the principal aim of ensuring
environmental stability and maintenance of the ecological balance
• Implementation of the 10 point National Wildlife Action Plan initiated
• Considerable increase in the total area brought under afforestation programme
and the National Development Board set up in 1985
• Incentives to adopt efficiency enhancing and waste minimisation
practices like, enhancement of cess rates on water consumption, duty
concessions on Import of certain pollution control equipment,
accelerated depreciation on pollution abatement equipment.
• Various carrying capacity studies (Doon Valley, National Capital
Region), on improving methodology and techniques of EIA carried
216
out
• BSI and ZSI surveys conducted
• Scheme on Bio diversity Conservation was initiated in 1991-92
• Programmes such as Man and Biosphere Programme, the Environmental
Research Programme, research climate change were undertaken
• More than 5000 clubs launched for providing environmental education amongst
children
• National River Conservation Plan approved in 1995
• Several steps for afforestation and eco-development undertaken
Ninth Plan (1997-2002)
• Programmes under the above Plan included attempts to phase out lead in motor
spirit, improvement in quality of high speed diesel
• Focused on integration of environmental concerns with decision making
• Area specific programmes also stressed upon like National River Conservation
Programme that started National lake Conservation Programme, Taj Trapezium,
schemes to protect Himalayan ecosystem and biodiversity, programmes for
sustainable development of Islands; Islands Development Authority (IDA) was
constituted in 1998
217
• Initiatives towards strengthening, environmental statistics and mapping,
management biosphere reserves, biodiversity conservation, environmental education
and training
• Schemes similar to 8th Plan for afforestation, wetland development also envisaged
by the Plan
Tenth Plan (2002-2007)
• Reconciliation of population and economic growth with environmental conservation
perceived as an urgent necessity.
• Action plans to be initiated for reducing pollution levels.
• Management of hazardous wastes through collection, processing, and disposal to be
given priority.
• Emphasis on environmental education amongst masses through the involvement of
NGOs Youth educational institutions

218
Policy Statement on Environment and Development
POLICY STATEMENT
Immediately after the Earth Summit (1992) India has taken several steps
in the direction of conservation of environment and development in
harmony with environment. The National Conservation Strategy and
Policy Statement on Environment and Development is a step in that
direction. It envisages the need for laying down the guidelines that will
help to weave environmental considerations into the fabric of national
life and development process. It is an expression of commitment for
reorienting and action in unison with the environmental perspective.

219
The Preamble of National Conservation Strategy and Policy
Statement states "that the survival and well-being of a nation depend
'on sustainable development. It is a process of social and economic
betterment that satisfies the needs and values of all interest groups
without foreclosing future options. To this end, we must ensure that
the demand on the environment from which we derive our
sustenance, does not exceed its carrying capacity for the present as
well as future generations. Over the years, there has been progressive
pressure on the environment and the natural resources, the alarming
consequences of which are becoming evident in increasing
proportions. These consequences detract from the gains of
development and worsen the standard of living of the poor who are
directly dependent on natural resources. It is in this context that we
need to give a new thrust towards conservation and sustainable
development."
The key words are conservation and sustainable development. 220
POLICY TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The Earth Summit 21 awakened countries to the need for integrating
sustainable development concerns in the planning process. Agenda
21, adopted at the Summit, put forward a road map directing this
change, spanning a wide spectrum of social, economic and
environmental issues from combating poverty and improving access
to basic services to increasing the role of the private sector and
international cooperation, to conservation and management of natural
resources.
The principles underlying Agenda 21 objectives have been central to
planning in India. Since Independence, the country has paved the
way towards social development through, multi-faceted development
planning, guided by the objectives of poverty eradication and
provision of basic needs.

221
The governance structure of the country is founded on the principles of
democracy, equality and the rule of law. The basic democratic character of
the Indian State has, since Independence, become stronger, wider and
deeper. In order to strengthen the basic character of democracy, i.e. the flow
of power upward from the people, there has been emphasis on
strengthening local self-governance in villages and urban areas alike.
Education, awareness, print and electronic media and the rapid spread of
information technology have led to an ever-widening participation of the
civil society in the development process of the country.
The government, over the years has been developing a number of
programmes that aim at eradicating poverty either through directly targeted
programmes such as employment generation, training and building-up
assets of the poor or indirectly through human development with an
emphasis on health, education, and minimum needs including protection of
human rights and raising the social status of the weak and the poor. As a
result of these initiatives the percentage of population under poverty has
continuously declined. Population growth has decelerated below 2% for the
first time in four decades and literacy has increased from 52% in 1991
222
to
65% in 2001.
Environmental considerations have been an integral part of the Indian
culture and have been increasingly integrated in the planning process.
This is reflected in constitutional, legislative and policy framework as
also international commitments.
The government recognises that these laudable objectives are clouded
by serious concerns. The economy is currently in a decelerating
phase, which is compounded by the general slow-down in the world
economy. On the social front, too, there remains much to be done.
Despite the significant progress in areas of poverty eradication,
literacy and health standards, there still remains a gulf between the
standards prevailing in India and the rest of the world. According to
the Human Development Report (HDR) 2001, India ranks 115th in
the world as judged by the Human Development Indicator (HDI), an
index incorporating various measures of GNP, longevity, health,
nutritional standards, literacy, water supply and the like. India's HDI
was estimated at 52.9 compared to the average of 64.5 for all
developing countries. 223
Growth in the 1990s has generated less employment than was
expected. The infant mortality rate has stagnated at 72 per 1000 for
the last several years.
There remain perceptible rural-urban and regional differences in
access to basic services. Per capita electricity consumption in the
country is only one-sixth the world average and one-twentieth that in
high-income countries and as many as 60% of rural households and
20% of urban households do not have an electricity connection
(Planning Commission, 2001). Land and forest degradation in rural
areas and over-exploitation of groundwater is seriously threatening
the sustainability of food production and pollution in cities is on the
rise.

224
The Government of India is cognizant of these challenges as the
country sets out to prepare the first development plan of this
millennium. While seeking to achieve a high and sustained economic
growth, it realises that economic growth standing on an unsteady
social and environmental foundation cannot be sustained. The Tenth
Five Year Plan assigns primacy to enhancement of human well-being
which includes not only adequate level of food consumption and
other consumer goods but also access to basic social services
especially education, health, drinking water and basic sanitation. It
also assigns primacy to the: expansion of economic and social
opportunities for all individuals and groups and wider participation in
decision-making. Conservation and management of natural resources
is an important focus of the plan.

225
As a nation that has been actively associated with the global pursuit
of sustainable development, India's commitment to Agenda 21 re-
emphasises the principles that have long guided development
planning in the country. In order that the country build upon the gains
of the past and address the weaknesses that have persisted within it, it
is necessary that the international community, especially the
developed world, recommit itself to the global partnership forged at
Rio. This partnership was based on the principle of common but
differentiated responsibility as the developed world acknowledged
the burden their societies had placed on the global environment and
the distinct advantage they commanded with respect to technologies
and financial resources. The commitments made by the developed
world towards enhanced and stable concessional financing to the
developing world have largely gone unfulfilled. As developing
countries struggle with their limited financial resources to meet the
immediate and more basic requirements of their people, it is
imperative that the North plays its role in order to operationlise
226
the
long-term mandate of Agenda 21.
IMPORTANT LAWS
The Policy Statement notes that in the direction of framing legal and
institutional framework adequate responses have been made. Thus,
the following enactments/amendments/regulations to, existing Acts
have been made.
o The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, amended in 1983, 1986 and
1991.
o The Water (Prevention) and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974,
amended in 1988.
o The Water (Prevention) and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977,
amended in 1991.
o The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, amended in 1988.
o The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, amended
in 1988.
227
o The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
o The Motor Vehicle Act, 1938, amended in 1988.
o The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991.
o A notification on Coastal Regulation Zone, 1991, amended in
1994 & 1997.
o Environmental Import Assessment Notification in 1994.
o Eco Mark Notification, 1994.
o Environmental Audit Notification, 1997.
o Public Hearing Notification, 1997.
o National Environmental Appellate Authority, 1997.
o Coastal Zone Management Authority, 1998.

228
Some of the Acts that existed before 1972:
o The River Boards Ace, 1956.
o The Merchant Shipping (Amendment) Act, 1970.
o The Indian Boilers Act, 1923.
o The Mines and Minerals Ace, 1947. The Factories Act, 1948.
o The Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951.
o The Atomic Energy Act, 1962.
o The Radiation Protection Rules, 1971.
o The Insecticides Act, 1968.
o The Indian Forests Act, 1927.

229
IMPORTANT INSTITUTIONS RELATED TO
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Following institutions have been created:
o Ministry of Environment and Forests.
o Ministry of Water Resources.
o Ministry of Surface Transport.
o Department of Science and Technology.
o Department of Agriculture and Cooperation.
o Department of Biotechnology.
o Department of Ocean Development.
o Department of Space.
o Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources.
o Energy Management Centre. 230
In addition, following important agencies have been created:
o Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution Control Boards.
o Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education with specialised
institutions for research in arid zone, forestry, moist and deciduous forests,
wood technology, genetics and tree breeding.
o Forest Research Institute (FRI).
o Forest Survey of India (FSI) and the Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
in addition to the organisations like Botanical Survey of India CBSI)
and Zoological Survey of India (ZSI).
o National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)
o National Watershed Development Board
o National Museum of Natural History
o Tata Energy Research Institute
o Centre for Environment Education
o Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology 231
Role of NGOs
As mentioned in the preceding pages, the national governments
started setting up ministries/ departments of environment after
Stockholm conference. This was followed by national and
international commitments for protection of environment as also by
entering into Agreements/ Protocols at international level. However,
in most of the cases many problems surfaced during the
implementation phase of the agreements. We must emphasise that
commitments or agreements made have no sanctity without
enforcement. The reasons for poor implementation may be many,
ranging from lack of political will to scarcity of funds. Also,
sometimes decisions taken in regard to environmental issues may not
be very sound, and the implications of such decisions could not be
visualised. It is against this background that public-spirited citizens
generate pressure either themselves or through non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) for enforcement. The service being rendered
by environmental NGOs is commendable. 232
The environmental NGOs exert all sorts of pressure to national
governments, the international agencies and the business
corporations for fostering the cause of environment related issues.
Their role at global level is significant in developing lobbies
especially for trans boundary issues "implying that' environmental
problems are not limited by national borders but are the problems of
entire humanity. There are all sorts of NGOs engaged in various
programmes but most of them are working in the area of
development and poverty reducing programmes. Total number of
NGOs all over the world may run into thousands.
NGOs usually act as mediators between governments and citizens.
They work at grass roots or community level as also with poor or
socially disadvantaged people and provide them necessary support.
Most of the NGOs get government funding or aid from other
agencies. However, there are NGOs that do not accept funds from
others and raise funds through charities.
233
Many NGOs like World Wide Fund (WWF), Greenpeace and Friends
of Earth operate at global level. Most of the NGOs have websites that
provide all sorts of information’s to members and others.

Various NGOs work hard to rally public opinion. The efforts of these
groups have brought changes in the policy of some companies. Shell,
the oil giant, was wanting to dump its worn out oil ship, the Brent
Spar in North Sea. Greenpeace played a crucial role in preventing
this to happen. Greenpeace organised a boycott of service stations of
Shell in Germany. The sales fell, Shell adopted another way of
disposal of Brent Spar,

234
What happened in Seattle, Washington in 1999 is well known. WTO
organised a meeting in Seattle to develop agenda for next round of talks
the Millennium Round. The meeting was attended by about 5000
delegates including environment ministers of various governments.
There were thousand of protesters who disrupted the meeting. The
situation was so serious that US authorities used gas, arrested hundreds
of protesters and impose curfew. Seattle meeting was a fiasco, the talks
failed because WTO was not willing to consider environmental and
poverty issues adequately.
Another example is that of Taiwan which wanted to buy a piece of land
in North Korea to dump its nuclear waste. The Korean Federation of
Environmental Movement opposed this move and succeeded.
The above cases underscore the point that NGOs are important
stakeholders and can be effective for the upliftment of society as labour
unions or politicians. They can confront the governments that do not act
rationally. In fact, many a times NGOs are considered as a pan of
negotiations.
235
In India, Chipko Movement presents a typical case of how people-
both men and women mostly living around forests - organised
themselves in a group to save the forests. In 1970s, India's forest
cover was declining. It directly affects forest dewellers who depend
upon their livelihood on forest resources - fuel, fodder and food. It
was at this time that Chipko Movement started in 1973 in Uttar
Pradesh, the largest state of India. Chipko means to 'embrace'. The
people, especially the women literally embraced the trees when the
loggers would come to fell them. As a result of this movement, the
government banned felling of trees in Himalyan region. This
movement spread to other states of India in 1980s including the
coastal areas. Chipko movement is an example of how a non-violent
struggle by thousands of people can achieve the protection of
environment. This movement helped to seek for alternative
renewable resources for meeting the needs of industry.

236
ENVIRONMENT MANAEMENT SYSTEM :
Introduction
The aim of SD is to minimise resource depletion, social instability and
environmental damage for the larger cause of society and its welfare. Yet
when one examines issues relating to management of companies, the
concept of SD is not a priority. The world of business has yet to have a
grip of relationship between their activities and sustainability. The World
Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSO) which came
into being after the Rio Conference is the body which has been
addressing itself with the questions relating to SD vis-a-vis economic,
social and environmental issues. Under its agenda of Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR), WBCSO requires to know whether the companies
are meeting their responsibility in making CSR happen. They have
refined tools, based more or less on general management principles to
assess their status and help the companies move in the direction of SD.

237
The companies in developed countries are increasingly being asked
to be accountable for what they are doing to issues concerning
environmental damage and resource depletion. The various
stakeholders (shareholders, other investors, customers, employees,
suppliers, community, government, NGOs) also want to know about
these issues. Unfortunately, many leading companies have business
managers who see environment as an externality and if at all,
unwelcome additionality in their mainstream management.
The companies, therefore, need to demonstrate their CSR that
includes concern for environment. As a first step towards the goals
for environmental concerns is to establish an Environmental
Management System (EMS). EMS is nor very much different from
the general management. Even a small shopkeeper has some sort of
management system though it may not be a formal system. (Whether
formal or informal, the company or the shopkeeper takes into account
its policies, planning, operations, processes, personnel and review
system). 238
EMS is a formal system concerned with managing the aspects of
company's activities, products and services that have or could have
an impact on the environment. EMS is to be adopted as a strategy by
the enterprise for meeting the expectations of society for SO. EMS
takes cognisance of nature, not infinitum but nature finitum. The
nature has been providing sustenance and protection to living
creatures including human, but nature now is in need of protection
from human. It is essential that relationship between natural
resources and the activities of the company must be recognised at
every level. The top management of the organisation has to take a
decision whether to install EMS. This decision or commitment of the
top management would be based on many considerations including
the primary aim of financial gain or loss.

239
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS)
It refers to system for managing an organization’s environmental
Programmes in a formal, comprehensives, systematic, planned and
documented manner. It embraces organisational structure, planning,
and resources for developing, implementing and maintaining the
policy for protection of environment. Thus it has to have:

• Commitment of top Management

• Written objectives for EMS
• Benefits of EMS
• Relevant legal requirements
• Documented or written procedures involving
processes/procedures so that those officers/ employees who are
involved in the EMS follow the standard procedures

240
• Assigning responsibilities to employees to ensure that everyone
knows who is to do what
• Environmental Audit to know the environmental aspect and'
impacts of company's activities and to have EMS assessed and
certified by an independent certifier to demonstrate that system
conforms to relevant standard; in other words to obtain ISO
14001.
Terminology
Certain terms and definitions used in EMS need to be elaborated,

241
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
EIA refers to review of potential impact of a project to be launched
by an organisation. It includes:
i. assessment of existing environmental status.
ii. analysis of various factors of ecosystem like trees, ponds,
wildlife.
iii. analysis of adverse impacts of the project that is to be started.
iv. impact on people in the neighbourhood. .
CERTIFICATION BODY
It is an independent organisation which verifies that a company's
EMS conforms to specific standard such as ISO 14001. Such a body
is called certifier. If the system conforms to standard, the company
will be awarded certificate. It is advisable to select a certification
body which has been accredited by government agency or other
impartial organisation with credibility. 242
Installing EMS
As mentioned above, formal operations of EMS in a company require
enhancing certain conditions in terms of organisational structure,
besides other conditions. The foremost is commitment of top
management. The reason is that EMS is something new and the top
management would like to go into details of how it is going to affect the
business before they commit. The top management and the senior
executives" are usually used to taking decisions in matters concerning
marketing, human resources, finance, quality control and other routine
areas and they have a specific mindset in these matters. EMS, being a
new area, would require a certain change in the thinking, let alone
adopting it. When we talk about change in thinking, it implies the
thinking of the organisation. It would mean providing a sustainability-
oriented capabilities mar are strategic for me organisation. This, surely,
is a human resource management function that through sustainability
oriented approach will equip the organisation with knowledge and skills
for at least qualitative change resulting into sound EMS. Legal
compliances and market demands may lead to installing EMS 243 but it
should not be the sole aim for environmental management.
Why EMS
The most common motives for adopting a formal EMS are the
following.
a. It is the statutory requirement and the firms want to avoid
prosecution. A manager today in any firm Ginnot afford to be
unaware of increasing complexities of environmental
legislation. In case of non-compliance, not only the company
has to pay penalties but also would invite adverse publicity. Of
course, it would depend how far a company is committed,
concerned or even proactive in regard to environmental issues.
There may be managers who would focus on legal requirements
and would show little interest in taking other initiatives which
are very important but may nor be a legal requirement, like
energy management.
b. In developed countries. improved environmental performance
is becoming a popular theme for enhancing the image of244the
company.
c. The demand of various' stakeholders especially the key clients
puts pressure for installing a formal EMS. Also in a supply chain,
retailers face the customers and their anger if the product is not
up to their expectations in terms of quality and the environmental
issues. The retailers would pass on the pressure to suppliers in the
chain asking them to rectify or improve concerns vis-a-vis
environment.

The service industry or financial services sector is also affected by

environmental issues and it is in its interest to be concerned about
EMS. It is in interest of the supplier in the supply chain that they
develop policies to protect themselves from financial penalities that
may arise from environmental damage or pollution and thus ensure
good performance of their investments.

245
Certification for EMS
There is a provision to have EMS certified by an external party.
International Standard called ISO 14001 and European Union's EMAS
(Eco-management and Audit System) and earlier British Standard for
environment (BS 7750) are the recognised standards for the purpose. The
agencies that certify for these standards are third parry certifiers because
they are independent of organisation that has adopted EMS and its
customers.
Certification for EMS through the above-mentioned standard may be a part
of corporate policy or this may be in response to the demands of the clients.
Since certification is not mandatory, the companies themselves assess what
benefits would accrue if they have certification or merely an operating
EMS. While assessing the benefits of certification, the companies examine
the various aspects like market demand or cost factor.
For good performance organisations adopt effective and efficient systems
which should result in continued improvement in quality and for this
purpose, ISO 9000 is quality management standard. ISO 14000 is based on
ISO 9000 philosophy. 246
Environmental Standards
1. BS 7750: 'BS 7750 was introduced as a British Standard for
developing an environmental management system, including as
guidance on its implementation and assessment. It was the first
environmental standard and influenced the development of ISO
14001. The British companies have been using BS 7750 as the
standard for EMS to establish their credibility vis-a-vis
environment. It was withdrawn when ISO 14001 was recognised
as an international standard by European Committee for
standardisation (CEN). BS 7750 was derived from ISO 9000. It
gave a lead to UK in developing EMS Standard.
2. ISO 14000: The International Standard Organisation (ISO) took
up the responsibility for drawing up a new Environmental
Standard series ISO 14000 with the help of Technical Committee,
TC 207. India is a member of TC 207. BIS represents India in
this committee. This committee works through sub-committees
247
each on:
• Environmental Management System.
• Environmental Auditing.
• Environmental Labelling.
• Environmental Evaluation.
• Life cycle Assessment.
• Definitions and Terminology.
ISO 14000 is the response of the industry to interest in sustainable
development precipitated by Rio, 1992. ISO created 14000 in
collaboration with the national governments of many countries i. e.
with their national standard agencies.
Most of the collaboration was from the countries of the North with a
few exceptions from the developing world. (ISO was originally
established by a group of nations to facilitate international trade,
therefore the ISO standard creation is open to members of this group,
248
i.e., standard setting bodies of these nations.)
If may be of interest to note that before ISO 14001 came into being,
some countries were thinking of having some kind of national
standards for EMS. As mentioned above, the first formal standard for
EMS was developed by British standard institutions (BS 7750 was
developed in 1992 and become operative in 1995). Before ISO 14001
the Bureau of Indian (BIS), formerly known as Indian Standard
Institution, developed some sort of standard but did not implement it
because it become known that ISO is creating an international
standard for EMS. Some other Asian countries also were making
efforts in developing standards for environmental hurters. Likewise, a
South African Standard for EMS, based on BS 7750, was developed
in 1993, before ISO 14001. ISO 14001 became operative in 1996.

249
ISO 14000 (Series) - The Basic Principles
ISO 14000 series was approved by European Commission through
the recommendation of CEN (Comite European de Normalisation)
which is European Union's Standardisation body. ISO 14001 is
derived from ISO quality standard, 9000 bur it is broader in scope
than quality standards because environmental issues are larger issues
affecting the nation’s and the, World’s resources and living
conditions. Further, it requires Organisations to be concerned with
everything from raw materials to end product as it reaches the
consumer and its final disposal - a life cycle analysis approach. ISO
14001 is not a guarantee .of excellence in environmental performance
but it is an assurance that organisation has an EMS that manages its
environmental issues. An organisation may like to upgrade from ISO
14001 to EMAS which is open to public. ISO 14000 enables an
organisation's EMS to:

250
i. formulate and define policy and objectives in this regard
ii. to formulate a plan to implement the policy and objectives.
iii. to develop the capabilities and sup part system to achieve the
implementation of policy objectives.
iv. to monitor and evaluate environmental performance
v. to review the EMS far continued improvement.
Five components of ISO 14001:

251
 Environmental Policy

Planning

Implementation

Monitoring and Evaluation

Review
252
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
As mentioned above first component of ISO 14001 is Environmental
Policy. A sound environmental policy reflects the commitment of
management in matters relating to environmental issues. The policy
has to be written as a document to be available to the concerned
employees as well as to the external parties.
The policy formulated by the top management who are signatories of
the policy document, Environmental Policy, in addition to what has
been described above, should:
i. be realistic taking into consideration the constraints and
resources of the company as well as the extent of impacts that the
organisation has on the environment. While discussing impacts
the document should embody life cycle analysis, resource
conservation, waste reduction and product design. In tact, the
concept of sustainable development should be the part of the
document. Rhetorics would not serve any purpose in the process
253
of documenting the policy.
ii. be documented and available to all the concerned employees and
the external parties stakeholders and public.
iii. be clear about commitment for continued improvement of EMS.
iv. be in conformity with the laws and rules and regulations and
must make a statement in regard to compliance.
v. lay down a framework of environmental objectives.

The objectives take into consideration the vision, mission and core
values of the organisation. The objectives are, in fact, indicators of
performance. The indicators are measurable. Examples of indicators
are quantity of (i) raw material used, (ii) emissions, (iii) other wastes,
(iv) energy, (v) recycling of wastes.
The EMS Auditor would be taking into consideration the objectives
and all the above listed requirements while conducting the audit.

254
PLANNING
Planning of EMS for audit requires that the system should be in the
form of written plan or manual giving details of work and
procedures. For example, when the work involves handling of
hazardous materials or any other procedure involving safety
measures, it has to be carefully written as a plan document. Planning
for EMS is an important function of an organisation in the sense that
it takes into consideration a proper schedule, resources, targets,
successes as well as likely failures, contingencies and alternatives to
mitigate the crisis if it occurs. The plan includes environmental
aspects and impact, though there may be an overlap in policy and
planning in this regard.
Planning takes into consideration the processes, resources,
responsibilities, skills, authority and coordination.

255
IMPLEMENTATION
The next element of EMS specifications, ISO 14001 is its
implementation. An organisation should have support and capabilities
for achieving objectives and targets set out in policy and plan. The
process of implementation implies management skills.
Implementation for ISO 14001 means:
• Management of Human, Financial and Natural resources.
• Motivation for action.
• Responsibilities.
• Documentation.
• Communication within the organisation.
• Operational control.
• Preparedness for emergency.
• Records and management of information.
256
Successful implementation of EMS would need commitment of all the
employees. EMS, in fact, encompasses many other areas of management;
particularly organisational change is one area that is key to successful
implementation of EMS. It is important that the traditional management
culture is changed to environmental-organisation culture. Education and
training provide the members of organisation with requisite environmental
skills and knowledge. Environmental awareness of the staff in general and
environmental training for those involved in EMS bring benefits to the
organisation and help in implementation of the EMS.
MONITORING AND EVALUATION
EMS demands a mechanism for measuring performance and evaluation for
which process has to be evolved that involves testing and verification. Such
a process must be an ongoing process to identify environmental
performance indicators that are verifiable. Also, for regular monitoring, the
companies must establish a system and procedure for determining
compliance and conformance with law and rules and regulations. For
conformance to all the above regulations a periodic audit of EMS should be
conducted either by internal or external auditors who are trained 257
and
qualified for the job.
REVIEW
An organisation which has initiated the process of formulating Policy,
Planning, Implementation and Monitoring of EMS has to adopt the last
step, namely, the' Review of the system. At Review stage, the organisation
has to think in terms of continual improvements of environmental
performance. Review is very important because it undertakes an in-depth
analysis of all the issues of environmental concern. Reviews must go
beyond the stage of compliance. It must pay full attention to
implementation of objectives set out by the organisation. If the objectives
have not been achieved or not achievable, these must be changed or
modified. Issues to be discussed in the process of review are:
i. Suitability of environmental policy;
ii. Recommendations of audit report;
iii. New regulations;
iv. Interest of Stakeholders;
v. Public Awareness and Pressures
258
The review findings must be documented especially its recommendations in
regard to safety measures, preventive measures and impacts on public
health and living conditions. Accidents and incidents may occur suddenly.
They result from failures of equipment, human error or flaws in EMS itself.
These have to be identified and compliances be restored. Human error is
most significant because it is something that can be corrected/minimised on
the basis of deep analysis as to why a particular person makes a particular
mistake. Anyway, it is the management which is blamed if the machine fails
or processes become haphazard or when people make mistake. The
responsible management reviews the EMS in the light'6f what is stated in
the last sentence.
WHO CAN ADOPT ISO 14001 STANDARD
This standard is tailored for an organisation of any size. It is applicable to
any organisation that would like to:
• maintain and implement EMS.
• be sure that it conforms to stated environmental policy.
• obtain certification/registration of EMS.
259