Treatment of

Groundwater
Introduction
 Introduction
• Compared to surface water sources, many groundwater sources
are characterised by reduced seasonal variability and microbial
counts, lower turbidity and lower concentrations of synthetic
organic substances.
• Because of this and its normally high overall quality,
groundwater is often preferred as a drinking water source to
surface water.
• When it does not contain excessive mineral concentrations or
contaminants, groundwater may be suitable for direct pumping
to the distribution system and consumption, without prior
treatment.
 What is groundwater?

• Groundwater is water that exists in the pore spaces

and fractures in rocks and sediments beneath the
Earth’s surface.
• Groundwater makes up about 1% of the water on
the Earth. But this makes up to 35 times the
amount of water in lakes and streams.
• Groundwater occurs everywhere beneath the
Earth’s surface, but is usually restricted to depth
less than about 750 meters.
 What is groundwater?

• The use of the term “Groundwater” is typically

restricted to underground water that can flow freely
into a well, tunnel, spring, etc. This definition
excludes underground water in the unsaturated zone.
• Groundwater is found beneath the unsaturated zone
where all the open spaces between sedimentary
materials or in fractured rocks are filled with water
and the water has a pressure greater than
atmospheric pressure.
 Movement of groundwater

• Groundwater systems are dynamic and water is

continuously in slow motion down gradient from
areas of recharge to areas of discharge.
• The supplies located in different aquifers, or in
different parts of the same aquifer, can tap water of
widely different residence time.
Groundwater movement in a large
aquifer
 Quality Constituents
Constituent Effect
Iron and Manganese Taste, Colour, Odour
Calcium, Magnesium Hardness, Scale Deposits
Nitrates ‘blue baby syndrome’
TDS (anions and cations) Taste, Odour, Brackish water
Radionuclides Breathing complications
Hydrogen Sulphide Taste, Odour,
Organic Compounds Taste, Odour, Colour
Arsenic Toxicity
Fluorides Bone damage at concentration >3mg/l
Introduction to Treatment
 Treatment
All of the following will have to be considered when choosing the unit operations to be used:
A. Description of the release and remediation objectives
1. Concentration
2. Quantity of contaminant
3. Total time allotted for clean-up
4. Final use of the water
B. Site and aquifer characteristics
1. Depth to water
2. Permeability
3. Lithology
4. Extent of contamination
5. Ongoing site activities
 Methods

• Oxidation/Filtration
• Aeration
• Ion Exchange
• Carbon Adsorption
 Other Methods
Desalination
• Salinity is usually a result of elevated concentrations of sodium
and chloride, although other salts may also contribute.
Desalination is therefore the removal of these salts
• In cases of high total dissolved solids levels desalination is an
expensive process, both in capital and in operational costs hence
reverse osmosis is the main method used.
• Reverse osmosis separates a solute from a solution using a
pressure gradient to force the solvent through the membrane.
Reverse osmosis can be utilized to remove most inorganic
contaminants from groundwater .
 Other Methods

• Distillation is mainly reserved for very large plants. Large

desalination plants are often combined with power
generation, for reasons of economy
• Distillation is the evaporation and condensation of the
water stream. The inorganics do not evaporate with the
water and are left behind. The condensate is purified
water.
• The process requires heating the water to increase
evaporation rates and cooling of the airstream to
condense the water vapour.
 Other methods
• Pump and treat
It is the pumping of water to the surface and treating it
by convectional methods.
• Pump and treat methods may involve installing one or
more wells to extract the contaminated groundwater.
Groundwater is pumped from these “extraction wells” to
the ground surface, either directly into a treatment system
or into a holding tank until treatment can begin. The
treatment system may consist of a single clean-up
method, such as activated carbon or air stripping, to clean
the water.
 Other methods

• Filtration and Sedimentation

Filtration removes suspended impurities and colloidal
impurities .In addition to this, the micro-organisms present
in water are largely removed.
Contaminants can also be removed from the groundwater
by natural filtration processes if the aquifer has
interconnections between pores that are smaller than the
contaminant. For example a sandy aquifer may act as a filter
for biological contaminants The process of filtration forms
the most important stage in the purification of water.
 Other methods

• Sedimentation also occurs naturally as the aquifer has

a high residence time that allows the particles to
settle at the bottom of the aquifer.
• Disinfection: It is carried out to eliminate or reduce
to a safe minimum limit, the remaining micro-
organisms, and to prevent the contamination of
water during its transit from the treatment plant to
the place of its consumption.
Iron and Manganese Removal
 Iron and Manganese - Summary
• Iron and manganese occur naturally in water, especially
groundwater. They can also be dissolved from sandy soil, laterite,
shale, sandstone and other rocks by acid water, which contains no
dissolved oxygen.
• Neither of the elements causes adverse health effects; they are, in
fact, essential to the human diet in small quantities.
• However, water containing excessive amounts of iron and
manganese can stain clothes, discolour plumbing fixtures, and
sometimes add a "rusty" taste and look to the water. Iron produces
a brown colour and manganese black colour.
• Manganese in excess may affect neurological and muscle function.
 Iron and Manganese Removal in
Groundwater
High levels of Iron and manganese are undesirable in
groundwater because of:
1. Their effect on the appearance and taste of the
water,
2. Their ability to cause staining on clothes and
distribution equipment, and
3. The detrimental health effects of excessive
manganese.
 Quality Standards for Iron and
Manganese
Iron Manganese
(mg/1) (mg/1)
WHO High class water 0.1 0.02
Highest desirable 0.3 0.1
Max. admissible 1.0 0.5

EC Guide level 0.05 0.02

Maximum
admissible 0.2 0.05
Industries- for 0.05 0.05
textile, beverage
and white paper
factories
Chemistry of Iron and Manganese in
water
• How iron and manganese are removed depends on their form
and concentration, this helps determine the best procedure and
treatment system to use.
• Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) can be present in water in one
of three basic forms:
1. Dissolved: ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+)
2. Particulate: ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn4+) states
3. Colloidal: very small particles (difficult to settle and filter).
• The predominance of one form over another is dependent on
the pH, redox potential and temperature of the water.
 Iron and Manganese Removal

The two most common treatment methods are:

1. Removal by oxidation and filtration where an
oxidant is added to chemically oxidize the iron or
manganese (forming insoluble particles), and kills
iron bacteria and any other disease-causing bacteria
that may be present. The filter then removes the
iron or manganese particles.
2. Adsorbing onto ion exchange resins.
 Oxidation
• Before iron and manganese can be filtered, they need to be
oxidized to a state in which they can form insoluble complexes.
• Oxidation involves the transfer of electrons from the iron,
manganese, or other chemicals being treated to the oxidizing
agent.
• Ferrous iron (Fe2+) is oxidized to ferric iron (Fe3+), which
readily forms the insoluble iron hydroxide complex Fe(OH)3
• Reduced manganese (Mn2+) is oxidized to (Mn4+), which forms
insoluble (MnO2).
 Oxidation

Oxidation can be carried out one of the following

methods:
1. Aeration - blowing/spraying air through the water
2. Addition of dissolved chemical oxidants - chlorine,
chlorine dioxide, ozone and potassium
permanganate (KMnO4)
3. Adsorption - greensand media and activated carbon
 Oxidation – Choice of Oxidant
• Chlorination is widely used for oxidation of divalent iron and manganese.
However, the formation of trihalomethanes (THMs) in highly coloured
waters may be a problem. Chlorine feed rates and contact time
requirements can be determined by simple jar tests.
• As an oxidant, potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is normally more
expensive than chlorine and ozone, but for iron and manganese removal, it
has been reported to be as efficient and it requires considerably less
equipment and capital investment.
• The dose of potassium permanganate, however, must be carefully
controlled. Too little permanganate will not oxidize all the iron and
manganese, and too much will allow permanganate to enter the distribution
system and cause a pink colour. Permanganate can also form precipitates
that cause mud ball formations on filters. These are difficult to remove and
compromise filter performance.
 Oxidation – Choice of Oxidant
• Ozone may be used for iron and manganese oxidation. If not dosed carefully,
ozone can oxidize reduced manganese to permanganate and result in pink water
formation as well.
• A low-cost method of providing oxidation is to use the oxygen in air as the
oxidizing agent in a tray aerator. Water is simply passed down a series of porous
trays to provide contact between air and water. No chemical dosing is required,
which allows for unattended operation.
• However, oxygen is not a strong enough oxidizing agent to break the strong
complexes formed between iron and manganese and large organic molecules.
Furthermore, the rate of reaction between oxygen and manganese is very slow
below pH values of 9.5.
 Oxidation

• Oxidation is also used for the removal of arsenic,

hydrogen sulphide and volatile organic compounds.
• The presence of other oxidizable species in water hinders
oxidation of the desired reduced compounds. Volatile
organic chemicals, other organic compounds, or taste- and
odour-causing compounds may result in an oxidant
demand. This additional oxidant demand must be
accounted for when dosing the oxidant. The expense of
operation derives from the chemical use in most cases,
and therefore is directly related to the source water quality.
 Filtration

• Oxidation of the soluble iron and manganese is then

followed by filtration using either sand, anthracite, or dual
media sand-anthracite and electro media filtration to
remove the insoluble oxides of iron and manganese.
• In general, manganese oxidation is more difficult than
iron oxidation because the reaction rate is slower. A
longer detention time (10 to 30 minutes) following
chemical addition is needed prior to filtration to allow the
reaction to take place.
 Filtration – Filter media
• Manganese greensand is by far the most common medium in
use for removal of iron and manganese through pressure
filtration.
• Greensand is a processed material consisting of nodular grains
of the zeolite mineral glauconite. The material is coated with
manganese oxide.
• The ion exchange properties of the glauconite facilitates the
bonding of the coating. This treatment gives the media a
catalytic effect in the chemical oxidation/reduction reactions
necessary for iron and manganese removal.
• This coating is maintained through either continuous or
intermittent feed of potassium permanganate.
 Filtration – Filter media
• Sand-anthracite (also iron-man sand) is another type of
media available for removal of iron and manganese. It
consists of select anthracite and sand with a chemically
bonded manganese oxide coating. Unlike manganese
greensand, this media is conditioned in the filter after
media installation.
• Electro media provides a slightly different option from
the manganese oxide coated media. This is a proprietary
multi-media formulation which uses a naturally occurring
zeolite and does not require potassium permanganate
regeneration.
 Filtration – Filter media

• Each medium has its advantages and disadvantages.

Selection of a medium and oxidant should be based
on pilot testing in which all necessary design criteria
can be determined.
 Iron and Manganese Removal in
Groundwater
• The process of oxidation followed by filtration is fairly
easy and is often the treatment of choice.
• The use of ion exchange resins for the removal of iron
and manganese has limited application due to the
requirement that the contaminants be in dissolved form
and at very low levels. This is due to the tendency of
oxygen to react with the iron and manganese and
therefore, increase the potential for plugging and build-up
on the resin surface
• Iron fouling is a common, and sometimes, irreversible
problem with ion exchange treatment.
Aeration
 Types of Aerators
Waterfall Aerator
• 1.2 – 3 m high
• CO2 removal; 30 % - 60%.
Tray Aerator
• Trays with holes, containing coke or gravel to increase the surface area and
retention time.
• Plan area 0.0015 to 0.045 m2 per m3 /hr 1.2 – 3 m high with 4 – 6 trays.
• CO removal 30 – 60%.
• Blowing air up through the trays will improve the performance so that a
smaller head loss is required, but the extra complexity adds maintenance
problems.
 Aeration
Cascade Aerator
• Water flows down an inclined plane in a thin film over and around
obstructions that improve mixing. CO removal 25 – 50%

Spray aerator
• Spray nozzles forms fine droplets. small nozzles (less than 25 mm)
may clog. Ventilation of sprays is important, but too much wind
may blow droplets away. At low flows efficiency can be maintained
by turning off some of the nozzles. Head loss about 6 m. Area
0.03 to 0.09 m2 per m3/hr. Typical flow rates through one nozzle
vary between 18 and 36 1/hr. CO2 removal about 75%.
 Aeration

Diffused – Air Aerator

• Compressed air is released through diffusers in the
bottom of a tank as fine bubbles. The head loss
through process is negligible but the big disadvantage
is the extra maintenance involved- diffusers can get
fouled with oil from the compressors, or clogged,
and there are more machines to maintain.
• Typical depths 3 to 4 m, retention time at least 15
minutes.
 Theory Of Aeration
• The rate at which oxygen dissolves in water is given by the
equation:
• N= K (A/V) (CS – CL)
where N is the rate of oxygen transfer
k is the transfer coefficient
A is the surface area of the water in contact with air
V is the volume of the water
CS is the saturation concentration of dissolved oxygen.
and CL is the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water
 Theory Of Aeration
Notes:
• K is higher if there is more mixing of the water.
• K is higher at higher temperatures.
• A/V is higher for thinner films or smaller droplets.
• CS varies with temperature e.g. 20o C 9.17 mg/1 DO
• 30O C 7.63 mg/1 DO
• CS for any gas varies with the partial pressure exerted by
that gas in the neighbourhood of the water e.g. in the
atmosphere:
 ……cont
• oxygen makes up 20.9% of air, its partial pressure is 760 x 209 =159 mm
• carbon dioxide makes up 0.03 % of air so its partial pressure is 0.23 mm.
• Removal of high concentration of CO stripping, so ventilation should be
provided
• CS reduces with altitude
• If CS becomes less than CL then N becomes negative and the gas leaves
the water.
• The analysis strictly only applies to gases of low solubility in water where
the main difficulty in the transfer is in the liquid. For high solubility gases
the hold up will be in the gas film.
Ion Exchange
 ION EXCHANGE

• This is the most economical way to soften household

water. The water softening unit uses sodium chloride
(table salt) to recharge beads made of ion exchange
resin that exchange Ca2+ and Mg+ minerals for sodium.
Artificial or natural zeolites can also be used. As the
hard water passes through and around the beads, the
hardness mineral ions attach themselves to it, dislodging
the sodium ions. When the bead or sodium zeolite has
no sodium ions left, it is exhausted, and can no longer
soften water.
• The resin is recharged by flushing (often back-flushing)
with saltwater. The high excess of sodium ions forces
the hardness ions off the resin beads. The excess sodium
is rinsed away, and the resin is ready to start the process
all over again. This cycle can be repeated many times
before the resin lose its ability to react to these forces.
• Some softening processes in industry use the same
method, but on a much larger scale. These methods
create an enormous amount of salty water that is costly
to treat and dispose of.
• According to some studies, the ion exchange
softening process adds sodium at the rate of about 8
mg/l for each grain of hardness removed per gallon
of water. For example, if the water has a hardness
of 10 grains per gallon, it will contain about 80
mg/l of sodium after being softened in an ion
exchange water softener if all hardness minerals are
removed
Granular Activated Carbon
 Granular Activated Carbon

• Materials used include burnt coconut shells and

wood which exhibit porous properties after roasting.
• This method can be used after conventional filters or
can replace the conventional filtration method.
 Granular Activated Carbon

• The water is filtered

through a granulated
carbon medium.
• Molecules of the liquid or
gas are attracted and held
on the surface of the solid
by surface tension.
• Macro pores also allow
entrance into the interior
structure of the carbon.
 Granular Activated Carbon

• The granular activated carbon method is useful for

removing organic compounds such as aromatic
solvents, herbicides, petroleum and disinfection by
products.
• In conclusion the method removes ordour taste and
colour.