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`The facts expressed in quantitative form can be termed

as data.

`The task of data collection begins after the research

problem has been defined and research design has been
developed.

`While deciding the method of data collection to be used

for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two
types of data viz., primary and secondary.
 Primaryata
`The primary data are those which are collected afresh
and for the first time and thus happen to be original in
character.

`The data used in a statistical study is collected under the

control and supervision of the investigation is referred
to as primary data.

`Information that is developed or gathered by the

researcher specifically for the research project at hand.
 Ô
aryata
`The secondary data are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been
passed through the statistical process.
or
`When the data are not collected by the investigator but is
derived from other sources then such data is referred to
as secondary data.

`information that has previously been gathered by

someone other than the researcher and/or for some other
purpose than the research project at hand.

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D. Observation
2. Interview
3. Questionnaire
4. Schedule
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Secondary data may either be published or

unpublished data.

Sources of unpublished data

D. Diaries
2. Letters
3. Unpublished biographies
4. Autobiographies
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Sources of published data

D. Publications of central, state and local govt.

2. Publications of foreign govt. or international bodies and
their subsidiary organizations.
3. Technical and trade journals
4. Books, magazines and newspapers
5. Reports and publications of various associations connected
with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges etc.
6. Reports prepared by research scholars, universities,
economists etc.
7. Public records and statistics
8. Historical documents
  Ô c

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In the Observation method the investigator asks no questions

but he simply observe or watch the participants or activities
in action and records the necessary data.

The information obtained under this method relates to what

is currently happening, which is collected by way of
investigator¶s own direct observation without asking from
the respondent.
 Ô
    

Types of observations

D. Structured vs Unstructured observation

2. Participant vs Non-participant observation

3. Controlled vs Uncontrolled observation

4. Disguised vs Non-disguised observation

 Ô
    

Advantages of observation method

D. Data is more reliable and free from respondent bias

2. Easy to note the effects of environmental influences

on specific outcomes

3. Easy to observe certain groups of individuals-very

young children, busy executives etc
 Ô
    

Disadvantages of observation method

D 

  


  
      
    

  
       



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o Interview is a face-to-face interaction between two or

more persons for a particular purpose.

o According to Scott, ³ Interview is a purposeful

exchange of ideas, answering of questions and
communication between two or more persons.´
 yp t rvi 
D. Structured and Unstructured Interview
Interview:: Structured in
case of descriptive and causal study and Unstructured in
case of exploratory study
2. Focused Interview: It is mean to focus attention on the
given experience of the respondent and its effects.
3. Clinical interview: It is concerned with the broad
underline feelings or motivation or with the course of
individual¶s life experience.
4. Non-directive interview: Its function is simply to
encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic
with a bare minimum of direct questioning.
 vatag t rvi  th
D. Faster and Cheaper method
2. Easy and Flexible
3. Replies can be recorded
4. No field staff is required
 r  tiair  th
6 It consists of number of question printed or
typed in a definite order on a form.

6 Used in case of big enquiries.

6 Free from bias of the interviewer.

6 Generally sent through mail.

ipr igigth  tiair
What are you trying to find out?
D. A good questionnaire is designed so that your results will
tell you what you want to find out.
2. Start by writing down what you are trying to do in a few
clear sentences, and design your questionnaire around
this.

How are you going to use the information?

D. There is no point conducting research if the results aren¶t
going to be used ± make sure you know why you are
asking the questions in the first place. Make sure you
cover everything you will need when it come to analyzing
the answers.
6
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  6 6666
 6

6
6 6  6 6  6
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§eep it short. In fact, quite often the shorter the better.

D. We are all busy, and as a general rule people are less

likely to answer a long questionnaire than a short one.
2. If you are going to be asking your customers to answer
your questionnaire in-store, make sure the interview is
no longer than D minutes maximum (this will be about
D to D5 questions).
3. If your questionnaire is too long, try to remove some
questions. Read each question and ask, "How am I going
to use this information?" If you don¶t know, don¶t
include it!
Use simple and direct language:
D. The questions must be clearly understood by the
respondent. The wording of a question should be simple
and to the point. Do not use uncommon words or long
sentences.
Start with something general.
Respondents will be put-off and may even refuse to complete
your questionnaire if you ask questions that are too personal
at the start (e.g. questions about financial matters, age, even
whether or not they are married).
Do locate personal or confidential questions at the end of the
questionnaire. The early appearance of unsettling questions
may result in respondents discontinuing the questionnaire.

Place the most important questions in the first half of the

questionnaire.
Respondents sometimes only complete part of a
questionnaire. By putting the most important items near the
beginning, the partially completed questionnaires will still
contain important information.
Leave enough space to record the answers.
If you are going to include questions which may require a
long answer e.g. ask someone why they do a particular
thing, then make sure you leave enough room to write in
the possible answers. It sounds obvious, but it¶s so often
overlooked!

Test your questionnaire on your colleagues (Pilot Study).

No matter how much time and effort you put into
designing your questionnaire, there is no substitute for
testing it. Complete some interviews with your colleagues
BEFORE you ask the real respondents. This will allow
you to time your questionnaire, make any final changes,
and get feedback from your colleagues.
Do order categories. When response categories represent a
progression between a lower level of response and a higher
one, it is usually better to list them from the lower level to
the higher in left-to-right order, for example,

D) Y66  6     66



Do ask responders to rate both positive and negative stimuli.

There is sometimes a difficulty when responders are asked
to rate items for which the general level of approval is high
(the "apple pie" problem). There is a tendency for
responders to mark every item at the same end of the scale.
Avoid category increase. A typical question is the following:
Marital Status: D) Single (Never married) 2) Married 3)
Widowed 4) Divorced 5) Separated

Avoid responses at the scale mid-point and neutral responses.

The use of neutral response positions had a basis in the past
when crude computational methods were unable to cope with
missing data. In such cases, non-responses were actually
replaced with neutral response values to avoid this problem.
The need for such a makeshift solution has long been
supplanted by improved computational methods. Consider the
following questionnaire item:
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o It is like a questionnaire.
o Performa containing a questionnaire being filled
by enumerators.
o Enumerators ask question from respondent and
record it in given space of the Performa.

Example: Population census

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D. Nominal

2. Ordinal

3. Interval

4. Ratio
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o Lowest level of measurment
o Scale values are only used as labels they just classify
sample units into categories
o The coding may be assigned to the categories but they do
not reveal logical ordering.

e.g. sex: Male = D, Female = 2

Type: Qualitative

Statistics: Frequencies/Percentage and Mode

 [  ria
a
Scale values indicate an order of magnitude (ranking) with
respect to the variable of interest

e.g. How do you evaluate class rooms at HHA

poor = D, no opinion = 2, good = 3

Type: Qualitative

Statistics: Median and Range

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Scale values indicate orders of magnitude as well as distance
(for most behavioral research, Interval scales are the highest
form of measurement) e.g. Average grade when entering
HHA

Type: Quantitative

Statistics: Mean and Standard Deviation/variance

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Ratio scales have absolute quantities. Money and weight
are ratio scales, as they have an absolute zero as well as
interval properties.

e.g. Sales revenue in a sample of companies

Type: Quantitative

Statistics: Geometric Mean, Coefficient of Variation

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