 Structural loads or actions are forces, deformations,

or accelerations applied to a structure or

its components.

 Loads cause stresses, deformations,

and displacements in structures.

 Assessment of their effects is carried out by the

methods of structural analysis.

 Excess load or overloading may cause structural

failure, and hence such possibility should be either
considered in the design or strictly controlled.
Types of loads
 Dead loads.
 Live loads.
 Environmental loads.
 Other loads.
Dead loads
 The dead load includes loads that are relatively
constant over time, including the weight of the
structure itself, and immovable fixtures such as walls.
The roof is also a dead load. Dead loads are also known
as permanent or static loads.
Dead Loads
Dead Loads
 weight of the structure itself
 floors, beams, roofs, decks, beams/stringers,
superstructure
 loads that are “always there”
Live loads
 Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of
short duration, or a moving load.
These dynamic loads may involve considerations
such asimpact, momentum, vibration, dynamics of
fluids and material fatigue.

 Live loads, sometimes also referred to as

probabilistic loads, include all the forces that are
variable within the object's normal operation cycle
not including construction or environmental
loads.
 Roof and floor live loads are produced during
maintenance by workers, equipment and
materials, and during the life of the structure by
movable objects, such as planters and people.

 Bridge live loads are produced by vehicles traveling

over the deck of the bridge.
Live Load (Imposed Load)
Live Loads
 People, furniture, equipment.

 Loads that may move or change

mass or weight.
Load Example: Live Load in Ballroom
Ballroom
Live Load = 100 lb/ft^2
Environmental loads
These are loads that act as a result of weather,
topography and other natural phenomena.

 Wind loads
 Snow, rain and ice loads
 Seismic loads
 Temperature changes leading to thermal
expansion cause thermal loads
 Frost heaving
 Lateral pressure of soil, groundwater.
 Loads from fluids or floods
 Permafrost melting
 Dust loads
Live Snow Load
Other loads
 Engineers must also be aware of other actions that may
affect a structure, such as:

 Foundation settlement or displacement

 Fire
 Corrosion
 Explosion
 Creep or shrinkage
 Impact from vehicles or machinery vibration
 Construction loads
Dynamic Loads
 Moving loads (e.g. traffic)
 Impact loads
 Gusts of wind
 Loads due to cycling machinery
Load Example: Dynamic Load
HVAC

t
Load Example: Water in a dam

Water,
 = density

h
p = gh
Earthquake Loads
 Structure loaded when base is shaken
 Response of structure is dependent on the frequency
of motion
 When frequencies match with natural frequency of
structure - resonance
Load Example: Earthquake Load

Earthquake Load

Earthquake Load

Base Motion
Settlement
Some Types of Structures
 Arch
 Truss
 Beam/Girder
 Frame
 Cable Suspended Structure
Arch
An arch is a structure that spans a space and supports structure
and weight above it.
Truss
A Truss is a structure composed of slender members (two-force members)
joined together at their end points. Joints are modelled by smooth pin
connections. Members are either under tension or compression.
Beam/Girder
A beam is a structural element that is capable of
withstanding load primarily by resisting bending
Beam
 A structural element that carries a load that is
applied transverse (perpendicular) to its length.
 Usually a horizontal member that carries a vertical
applied load.
 The top fibers of a beam are in compression; the
bottom fibers are in tension.
Cantilever Beam
 A special type of beam that is supported only at one
end
 The top fibers of the cantilever are in tension; the
bottom fibers are in compression
Column
A vertical structural element that carries an axial force
in compression
 An axial force is a force along the length of the
member.

COLUMN
Frames
A frame is a structural system that supports other components of a physical
construction
Braced Rigid
Dome
A structural element that is made up of arches that
radiate around a center point to create a half sphere
Cable Suspended Structure
Cable Stayed Bridge
Structure of a Building
The primary function of a
building structure is to
support and transmit the
building loads and forces to
the ground.

Photos courtesy Tilt-up Concrete Association

Characteristics of a Structure
 Strength

 Stability

 Economic Value
 Strength is the capacity of a structure to carry the loads
applied to it.

 Stability means the structure can maintain its shape when

loads or forces are applied. Loads and disturbances to the
structure should not produce large movements or failure.

 The economic value or cost effectiveness of the structural

design depends on choices made regarding how the
structure will carry loads, the structural systems used, and
the materials chosen.
Forces and Loads
 A force is any action that causes a change in the shape
or motion of an object.
 A load is a force that is supported by a structural
element.
 The terms force and load are often used
interchangeably.
SNOW
WIND
Structural Member Forces
Tension – A force that stretches
or pulls apart a member,
resulting in the member
elongating.
Compression – A force that
squeezes or presses a member
together, resulting in the
member shortening.
Shear – A force that acts
perpendicular to the axis of the
member, causing the internal
particles of the member to slide
against each other.
 Three types of force that we will analyze in structural
elements are tension, compression, and shear.
Design Process
The same design
process used by
engineers and
designers in other
disciplines can be
used to design
structural systems.
Architectural Program
 Establishes overall concept and design philosophy
 Includes
 Location of building on site
 Architectural style
 Interior space planning
 Design elements
 Construction materials
 Building systems

 Encompasses the first four steps of the design process

Structural Design Process
 An architectural program establishes preliminary
structural systems.
 The structural engineer must analyze the
structural systems and provide a strong, stable,
and cost-effective design.
Structural Design Process
Identify Criteria and Constraints
 Additional criteria needed:
 Types and magnitudes of applied
loads
 Load path that each load will
follow to the ground
Structural Design Process
Explore Possibilities
 Consider alternate structural
configurations, materials, and
spacing to improve the design
or reduce costs
Structural Design Process
Select an Approach
 Based on structural
performance, compatibility with
the architectural program, and
cost
 Based on the possibilities
explored, select the optimal
design
Structural Design Process
Develop a Design Proposal
 Create a preliminary structural
design incorporating the
selections for all structural
elements
Structural Design Process
Model or Prototype
 Create a model to represent your
structural design
 Sketches
 Structural analysis software
 3D architectural software
Structural Design Process
Test and Evaluate
 Reanalyze structure based on
element selections
 Structural analysis software
 3D architectural software
Structural Design Process
Refine
 Revise the design as necessary to
correct problems with strength,
stability, and compatibility with
other systems
Structural Design Process
Create or Make
 Based on the final design after
revisions
 Create working drawings of the
structural design
Structural Design Process
Communicate Results
 Distribute the drawings
 Include in bid package
 Include in construction drawings