Understanding Individual Differences

 The Concept of Personality

 Sources of Personality Differences
 Personality Structure*
 Personality and Behavior*
 The Concept of Attitude*
 Attitudes and Behavior
 Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment*
 Individual Differences and Ethical Behavior*
 Case: Robert Princeton

1
 Robert Princeton Case Procedure

 Brief lecture review of chapter slides

 10 minutes in teams to prepare a team response to
the assigned team question
 Spokesperson presents team’s response
(maximum time of 1-2 minutes each)
 Instructor’s comments

2
 Robert Princeton Case Questions

1. Describe possible sources of personality differences between Robert and

Mario. [Slide 5]
2. Where on the continuum of the Big Five personality factors would
Robert likely fall? [Slide 6]
3. Where on the continuum of the Big Five personality factors would Mario
likely fall? [Slide 6]
4. Characterize Robert and Mario respectively on the specific traits of self-
esteem, introversion-extraversion, and dogmatism. [Slide 7]
5. How might the effects of work factors at Falls Video be related to
Robert’s experience of job satisfaction? [Slide 11]
6. What types of management ethics seem to predominate at Falls Video?
Why? [Slide 15]

3
 Concept of Personality

 Definition: Personal characteristics that lead to consistent

patterns of behavior
 Important Note*: Personality alone accounts for only 2-
12% of the variance in behavior (NOT IN TEXT)
 Interactionist Perspective*: (p. 48) Note that both the
person and the situation act as significant causes of
behavior in organizations, thus reinforcing the importance
of properly managing the situations that employees work
in.

4
 Sources of Personality Differences

 Heredity: Research on the nature-nurture controversy*

indicates that about 50% of the variance in personality is
inherited, thus setting limits on development
 Environment: Shapes at least 50% of personality?
 Culture
 Family
 Group Membership
 Life Experiences

5
 Personality Structure:
The “Big Five” Personality Factors*
(Each factor is a continuum of many related traits)

Adjustment
(Stable, confident, effective) (Nervous, self-doubting, moody)

Sociability
(Gregarious , energetic, self-dramatizing) (Shy, unassertive, withdrawn)

Conscientiousness
(Planful, neat, dependable) (Impulsive, careless, irresponsible)

Agreeableness
(Warm, tactful, considerate) (Independent, cold, rude)

Intellectual Openness
(Imaginative, curious, original) (Dull, unimaginative, literal-minded)

6
 Personality and Behavior:
Specific Personality Traits* and
Their Linkage to the “Big Five”

 Self-esteem (“self-worth”) is part of adjustment

 Locus of control (“fate vs. personal control”) is part of
conscientiousness
 Introversion and extraversion (preference for thinking vs.
interacting--NOT “social skills”) are part of sociability
 Dogmatism (generalized rigidity of beliefs) and
authoritarianism (narrower personality type who prefers
to follow orders) are part of intellectual openness

 REMEMBER: Traits are continua—people may be high,

low, or in-between. Most people are in-between!
7
 Goal Orientation as a Personality Trait

 Definition: The preference for one type of goal

versus another. Two orientations are important in
understanding individual job performance:
 Learning goal orientation – a predisposition to develop
competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new
situations; may be associated with better individual job
performance
 Performance goal orientation – a predisposition to
demonstrate and validate competence by seeking favorable
judgments from others (e.g., a supervisor) and avoiding
negative judgments; may be associated with a “helpless”
response pattern and weak performance
8
 The Concept of Attitude*

 Definition: Relatively lasting feelings, beliefs, and

behavior tendencies directed toward specific people,
groups, ideas, issues, or objects.
 Attitudes consist of three components*:
 AFFECTIVE = feelings
 COGNITIVE = beliefs
 BEHAVIORAL = predispositions to act

9
 Attitudes and Behavior

 Attitudes do not normally predict or cause

behavior in a simple and direct way
 Three principles relate attitudes to behavior:
 General attitudes best predict general behaviors
 Specific attitudes best predict specific behaviors
 The less time that elapses between attitude measurement
and behavior, the more consistent will be the
relationship between them

10
 Effects of Work Factors on Job Satisfaction*
(Def: The general attitude toward a job--NOT directly related to
performance, but IS related to turnover, absenteeism, and health)

Job satisfaction is enhanced when:

 Work is challenging and interesting but not tiring.
 Rewards are equitable and provide feedback.
 Working conditions match physical needs and promote
goal attainment.
 Self-esteem is high.
 Others in the organization hold similar views and facilitate
reward attainment.
 Policies and procedures are clear, don’t conflict, and aid
goal attainment.

11
 Organizational Commitment*

 Refers to the strength of an employee’s involvement in and

identification with the organization
 Strong organizational commitment entails:
 Strong belief in/acceptance of an organization’s goals and values
 Willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the
organization
 Strong desire to maintain membership in the organization
 Higher commitment is negatively related to absenteeism
and turnover, and positively related to productivity

12
Changes in Organizational Commitment Over Time

 Initial Commitment is determined by individual

characteristics and degree of congruence between their
expectations and organizational realities
 Subsequent Commitment is influenced by job
experiences, including many of the same factors which
influence job satisfaction (such as pay, interpersonal
relationships, working conditions, advancement
opportunities, etc.)

13
 Ethical Attitudes and Behavior

 Characterized by significant individual differences

 People are more likely to behave ethically if*:
 They have reached a higher level of cognitive moral
development
 They possess a high internal locus of control
 Organizational culture supports and reinforces specific
ethical attitudes and behavior

14
 Types of Management Ethics*

 Immoral management
 Devoid of any ethical principles, characterized
by exploitation for corporate or personal gain
 Moral management
 Guided by appropriate ethical principles
 Amoral management
 Indifference toward ethical principles,
characterized by a lack of awareness of ethical
issues

15
 Steps for Instilling Moral Management*

1. Identify ethical attitudes crucial for the

organization’s operations, and use training
programs to foster them
2. Select employees with desired attitudes
3. Incorporate ethics in the performance evaluation
process
4. Establish a work culture that reinforces ethical
attitudes

16