MODULE

1,2

Antenna
Chapter Outlines
• antennas
• Fundamental Parameters of Antennas

2
Basic Requirements of Radio
communication
 Classification of Radio waves

S.N Classification Abbreviation Frequency range

1 Very Low Frequency VLF 10-30 kHz

2 Low Frequency LF 30-300 Khz

3 Medium Frequency MF 300-3000 KHz

4 High Frequency HF 3-30 MHz

5 Very high Frequency VHF 30-300 MHz

6 Ultra high Frequency UHF 300-3000 MHz

7 Super high Frequency SHF 3000-30000 MHz

8 Extremely high EHF 30000-300000 MHz

frequency
 Antenna
• Two types:- 1) Transmitting antenna
2) Receiving antenna
• Transmitting antenna
• It is connected to a transmitter by a transmission line,
forces EM waves into free space
• Receiving antenna
• It is connected to a radio receiver, receives or interprets a
portion of EM wave travelling through space.
 Functions
• Mainly two functions:-

• Radiate RF energy developed in the

transmitter and to act as an impedance
matching device for matching the
impedance of free space.

• To radiate energy in specified direction and

suppress the radiation in unwanted
directions.
 • `

Free
space
TxR (Guided wave
wave)

Two wire
Antenna or
transmission line
Transition
region

Transition region between guided wave & free space wave

 Half wavelength dipole
• It is the fundamental radio antenna of metal rod
or tubing having a physical length equal to λ/2, λ
being wavelength in free space at the frequency
of operation.
• A dipole antenna may be defined as a
symmetrical antenna in which the two ends are
at equal potential relative to the midpoint.
• Dipole antenna

C
Transmitter Transmission line λ/2 dipole
antenna

B
 Dipole antenna
• The dipole antenna acts as a resonant circuit or a
resonator because the energy is reflected from
end A & B of the dipole which gives rise to a
standing wave along the length of the antenna.
 Common types of antennas:

11
ure 8-1 (p. 389)
Isotropic/Directional/Omni directional Patterns
• Isotropic pattern
– It is a fictitious radiator, defined as a radiator
which radiates uniformly in all directions.
– This is an ideal (not physically achievable)
concept.
– It is used as a reference antenna.
– Assume an isotropic radiator situated at the
centre of a sphere of radius r.
– All the power radiated from it passes over the
surface area of the sphere
– Poynting vector/power density(P) at any point on
the sphere gives the power radiated per unit area

12
Isotropic/Directional/Omni directional Pattern
• Directional antenna
– is an antenna, which radiates (receives) much
more efficiently in some directions than in others.
– Applies to antennas whose directivity is much
higher than that of a half wavelength dipole.

• Omni directional antenna

– is an antenna, which has a non-directional pattern
in a given plane, and a directional pattern in any
orthogonal plane (e.g. single-wire antennas).

13
Isotropic/Directional/Omni directional Patterns

Omni directional Antenna Pattern. 14

 Isotropic antenna
• Since radiated power flows in radial lines, the
magnitude of poynting vector P is equal to
radial component only.
»|P|=Pr.
• Total power radiated by the source is integral
over the surface of the sphere of the radial
component Pr
0
Fundamental Parameters of
Antennas
• RADIATION PATTERN
• RADIATION INTENSITY
• GAIN
• DIRECTIVITY
• BEAM SOLID ANGLE
• BEAM WIDTH AND EFFECTIVE APERTURE CALCULATIONS
• EFFECTIVE HEIGHT
• WAVE POLARIZATION
• ANTENNA TEMPERATURE
• RADIATION RESISTANCE
• RADIATION EFFICIENCY
• ANTENNA FIELD ZONES
• RECIPROCITY
• DUALITY

17
 1.Radiation Pattern
• Energy radiated from an antenna is not having same
strength in all directions
• Energy radiated in a particular direction by an
antenna is measured in terms of field strength at a
point which is at a particular direction from the
antenna
19
20
21
 Calculation of field strength
• Take the voltages at two points on an electric line of force and
then divide it by the distance between the two points.
• Hence unit of radiation pattern is volt/metre or milli volt/metre.
• Radiation pattern is a graph which shows the variation in actual
field strength of Electromagnetic field at all points, which are
at equal distance from the antenna.
• If the radiation from the antenna is expressed in terms of
field strength E(volt/metre) then the radiation pattern is
called field strength pattern.
• If the radiation from the antenna is expressed in terms of
power per unit solid angle then the radiation pattern is
called power pattern.
• Power patter is proportional to square of field
strength pattern
Radiation patterns usually indicate either electric field, E
intensity or power intensity. Magnetic field intensity, H has
the same radiation pattern as E related by η0.
The polarization or orientation of the E field vector is an
important consideration in an E field plot. A transmit receive
antenna pair must share same polarization for the most
efficient communication.
Steps in drawing radiation pattern
• Consider the antenna at the centre of an imaginary sphere of
fixed radius.
• Measure the field strength at every point on the surface of the
imaginary sphere.
• From the readings obtained, construct a 3D solid figure.
• Cut the 3D solid figure by a plane passing through the centre of
the sphere.
• Figures now obtained are used to represent the radial pattern in
a usual way.
• Radiation patterns are different for different antennas and are
affected by the location of antenna w.r.t ground.
• Shape of radiation pattern does not depend on
radius r
• Radiation field strength have components Eᶿ and
Eᶲ.
• Hence total electric field strength is given by
E=

Where Eᶿ = Amplitude of ᶿ Component

Eᶲ= Amplitude of ᶲ component.
Coordinate System
 Dimensional Patterns
• 3D pattern of a short dipole – Doughnut shape
• 2D vertical pattern of a short dipole- figure of
eight.
• 2D horizontal pattern of a short dipole- Circle
• 2D pattern obtained from 3D pattern by cutting
with a horizontal plane is called horizontal
pattern.
• 2D pattern obtained from 3D pattern by cutting
with a vertical plane is called vertical pattern.
 Principal Pattern
• Performance of an antenna is described in terms
of principal E-plane and H-plane patterns.
• E-plane pattern- Plane containing electric field
vectors and direction of maximum radiation.
• H-plane pattern- Plane containing magnetic field
vector and direction of maximum radiation.
32
 Radiation Pattern Lobes

Figure: Normalized three-dimensional amplitude field pattern (in linear scale)

of a 10-element linear array antenna with a uniform spacing of 0.25λ and
progressive phase shift (β = -0.6π) between the elements.
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2.

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Since the actual field intensity is not only depends on radial
distance, but also on how much power delivered to antenna, we
use and plot normalized function  divide the field or power
component with its maximum value.

E.g. the normalized power function or normalized radiation

intensity :

Pr , ,  
Pn  ,   
Pmax
If the antenna radiates EM waves equally in all directions, it is
termed as isotropic antenna, where the normalized power
function is equal to 1.

So,
Pn  ,  iso  1

In contrast with isotropic antenna, a directional antenna

radiates and receives preferentially in some direction.
The polar plot also can be in terms of dB. Where normalized E
field pattern,
E r , ,  
En  ,   
Emax

This will be identical to the power pattern in decibels if:

En  ,  dB  20 logEn  ,  
whereas

Pn  ,  dB  10 logPn  ,  
 Radiation Pattern lobes
• Different parts of radiation pattern is referred to
as lobes.
• A major lobe (also called main beam) is defined
as “the radiation lobe containing the direction of
maximum radiation”.
• A minor lobe is any lobe except major lobe.
represent radiation in undesired directions, and
they should be minimized
• A side lobe is “a radiation lobe in any direction
other than intended lobe”. Normally adjacent to
the main lobe and occupies the hemisphere in
the direction of the main beam. Largest of the
minor lobes.
• A back lobe is “a radiation lobe whose axis
makes an angle of approximately 180º with
respect to the beam of the antenna”.
For this figure,

• Infinite number of
principal E-planes (elevation
plane, φ=φc).

• One principal H-plane

(azimuthal plane; θ=π/2).
 FIELD REGIONS
The fields surrounding an antenna are divided into 3 principle regions:

• Reactive Near Field

• Radiating Near Field or Fresnel Region
• Far Field or Fraunhofer Region

The far field region is the most important, as this determines the antenna's
radiation pattern. Also, antennas are used to communicate wirelessly from long
distances, so this is the region of operation for most antennas.
Reactive Near Field Region

• Immediate vicinity of the antenna

• In this region, the fields are predominately reactive fields, which means the E-
and H- fields are out of phase by 90 degrees to each other (recall that for
propagating or radiating fields, the fields are orthogonal (perpendicular) but
are in phase).

The boundary of this region is commonly given as:

49
Radiating Near Field (Fresnel) Region

• The radiating near field or Fresnel region is the region between the
near and far fields.
• In this region, the reactive fields are not dominate; the radiating
fields begin to emerge.
• However, unlike the Far Field region, here the shape of the
radiation pattern may vary appreciably with distance.

The region is commonly given by:

Note that depending on the values of R and the wavelength, this field
may or may not exist.
50
 Far Field (Fraunhofer) Region
• The far field is the region far from the antenna, as you might
suspect.
• In this region, the radiation pattern does not change shape with
distance (although the fields still die off as 1/R, the power
density dies off as 1/R^2). Also, this region is dominated by
radiated fields, with the E- and H-fields orthogonal to each
other and the direction of propagation as with plane waves.
• If the maximum linear dimension of an antenna is D, then the
following 3 conditions must all be satisfied to be in the far
field region
•

The Rays from any Point on the Antenna are

Approximately Parallel in the Far Field.

51
52
For almost all practical
applications, a receiving antenna
located far enough away from the
transmitter (as a point source of
radiation)  far field region.
A distance r from the origin is
generally accepted as being in the
far field region if :

2L2
r Figure 8-3 (p. 392)

The spherical radiation pattern for an isotropic antenna.

Fundamentals of Electromagnetics With Engineering Applications by Stuart M. Wentworth

L is the length of the largest dimension on the antenna element, Copyright © 2005 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.

and assumed L>λ. For smaller L, r should at least as large as λ

 RADIAN AND STERADIAN
• The measure of a plane angle is a radian. One radian is defined as the
plane angle with its vertex at the center of a circle of radius r that is
subtended by an arc whose length is r.

• The measure of a solid angle is a steradian. One steradian is defined as

the solid angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere of radius
Figure 8-5 (p.r 393)
that
(a) An arc with length equal to a circ
is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of a square with
to the square of a sphere’s radius de
Fundamenta

each side of length r.

54
55
 A differential solid angle dΩ in sr is:

d  sin dd

• For sphere, the solid angle is found by integrating

dΩ :
2 
   sin dd  4 sr
 0  0

56
Fundamental Parameters of
Antennas (Cont’d..)

An antenna’s solid angle Ωp:

p   Pn  , d
To find the normalized power’s
average value taken over the entire
spherical solid angle :

 Pn  ,  d  p
Pn  ,  ave  
 d  4
2.RADIATION POWER DENSITY
• Electromagnetic waves are used to transport information through a
wireless medium or a guiding structure, from one point to the other.
• It is then natural to assume that power and energy are associated with
electromagnetic fields.
• The quantity used to describe the power associated with an
electromagnetic wave is the instantaneous Poynting vector defined as
• W = E× H
• W /P= instantaneous Poynting vector (W/m2)
• E =instantaneous electric-field intensity (V/m)
• H = instantaneous magnetic-field intensity (A/m)
• The time average Poynting vector (average power density) can
be written as

58
• Since the Poynting vector is a power density, the total power crossing
a closed surface can be obtained by integrating the normal component
of the Poynting vector over the entire surface.
• Avg power radiated by antenna is given by

• Total power radiated for isotropic radiator given by

59
3. RADIATION INTENSITY

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4. GAIN

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intensity

64
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For the same field strength at the same given point

67
7. DIRECTIVITY
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Comparison between directive gain and power gain
• Directive gain Power gain/gain

71
Comparison between directive gain and Directivity

72
Directive gain Directivity

73
8. ANTENNA EFFICIENCY

74
75
76
 DIRECTION OF
E
PROPAGATION OF
ZL
PLANE POLARIZED
Terminated load impedance WAVE

Rexg antenna

77
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80
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82
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84
85
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87
• Induced voltage depends on effective aperture
and hence effective height and effective aperture
are related to each other as,

88
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90
11.Radiation resistance

91
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• The value of radiation resistance depends on

 Configuration of antenna
 The point where radiation resistance considered
 Location of antenna w.r.t grounds and other objects
 Ratio of length of diameter of conductor used
 Corona discharge(a luminous discharge round the surface
of antenna due to ionization of air etc.)

93
• The value for a half-wave antenna in free space, measured at
the center of the wire where the current is greatest, is 73.2
ohms.
• The value changes as the antenna is moved closer to the
ground, because energy reflected from the ground sets up
voltages in the antenna.

94
12.Input impedance/feed point impedance/driving
point impedance/terminal impedance

95
 Self Impedance
• Self Impedance is the impedance at a point where the
transmission line carrying RF power from the transmitter
is connected.
• Since at this point input to the antenna is supplied so it is
also called as antenna input impedance
• Also at this point RF power from the transmitter is fed so
this is also called as Feed Point impedance
• Also at this point the transmission line operates
so it is also called as driving point impedance or terminal
impedance
 Antenna Input impedance is very important because it
is generally desired to supply maximum available
power from the transmitter to the antenna or to
extract maximum amount of received energy from
the antenna.

Transmission Line Antenna

Transmission Line ZL Terminals
Antenna Terminals

Equivalent Load
If the antenna is lossless and isolated then
the antenna terminal impedance is same as
the self impedance of the antenna.
Mathematically,
Z11  R11  jX11
For a linear half wave centre fed antenna the self impedance is calculated to be

Z11  R11  jX11

 73  j 42.45
• Thus for a lossless antenna self impedance and terminal
impedance are equal which is a complex quantity the real
part of which is known as self resistance or radiation
resistance and imaginary part as self reactance

• But if antenna is in nearby of other objects then terminal

impedance gets modified because besides self impedance
mutual impedance comes into existence due to current
flowing in neighboring antennas

• This is why self impedance of an antenna is defined as its

input impedance when all other antennas are completely
removed i.e away from it.
 Mutual Impedance
• Mutual Impedance is defined as negative ratio of
the voltage induced in one circuit (by a current
flowing in the second circuit) to the current in the
second circuit with all the circuits open circuited
except second circuit

Ckt 1 Ckt 2 E21

P S
I1
 By Definition
E21
Z 21 
I1
E12
Z12 
I2
E21=>Open Ckt Voltage across ckt no. 2 due to current I1 in ckt no 1
E12=>Open Ckt Voltage across ckt no. 1 due to current I2 in ckt no 2

Mutual Impedance depends upon

Magnitude of Induced Current
Phase Relationship between induced and original currents
Tuning Conditions of nearby antennas
Total impedance of an antenna is sum of its self and mutual impedance
 Front to Back Ratio
It is defined as the ratio of power radiated in desired
direction to the power radiated in opposite
direction.
 Higher the front to back ratio better it is.

 FBR depends upon tuning conditions or electrical

length of parasitic elements

 Higher FBR can be achieved by diverting the gain

in opposite direction to the desired direction by
tuning the length of parasitic elements

 For Receiving purposes adjustments are made to

get maximum FBR rather than maximum gain.
 Antenna Bandwidth
• Antenna Bandwidth is the range of frequency over which
the antenna maintains certain required characteristics like
gain, front to back ratio or SWR pattern (shape or
direction), polarization and impedance
• It is the bandwidth within which the antenna maintains a
certain set of given specifications.
 w  w2  w1  wr / Q  Bandwidth
f  f 2  f1  f r / Q
1
f 
Q
fr=Centre or Resonant Frequency

Q= 2π Total Energy Stored by antenna

Energy Radiated or Dissipated per cycle

Lower the Q of antenna higher is the bandwidth and vice versa

 Antenna Beam width
• Antenna Beam width is an angular width in degrees measured on the
radiation pattern (major lobe) between points where the radiated
power has fallen to half its maximum value. This is called as “beam
width” between half power points or half power beam width (HPBW)
because power at half power points is just half.

• Half Power Beam width is also known as 3 db beam width because at

half power points the power is 3 db down of the maximum power
value of major lobe.

• Further at half power points the field intensity (voltage) equals 1/21/2
or 0.707 times its maximum value
• Sometimes radiation pattern is described in
terms of angular width between first nulls or
first side lobes known as beam width
between first nulls or first side lobes known
as beam width between first nulls (BWFN).
• Directivity is given as

4 4
D 
A B
B= HPBW in horizontal plane x HPBW in
vertical plane …….square radians
= HPBW in E plane x HPBW in H plane
B   E   H ...........radians 2
4
D ............radians 2

 E  H
4  (57.3) 2
D ..............square deg rees
 E  H
 

41,257
D 
 E  H 
 PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE OF
BEAMWIDTH

• For direction finding applications a narrow

beam is desirable and accuracy of direction
finding is inversely proportional to beam
width
1
D 
B
• Gain
 Antenna Beam Efficiency

• The parameter is defined as the ratio of main beam area (ΩM)

to the total beam area (ΩA)
Total Beam area=Main Beam Area + Minor Lobe Area
M
M 
A
 A  M  m
M m
1 
A A
1  M  m
M
M  = Stray Factor
A
m
m  = Beam Efficiency
A
Intuitive Picture of Radiation
 Polarization of EM Waves

AR = Axial Ratio
 12. polarisation

 Cross polarization

113
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 RECIPROCITY THEOREM
STATEMENT: if an emf is applied to the terminals of an antenna no. 1 and the
current measured at the terminals of another antenna no.2 ,then an equal
current both in amplitude and phase will be obtained at the terminals of
antenna no.1 if the same emf is applied to the terminals of antenna no.2
or

If a current i1 at the terminals of antenna no. 1 induces emf E21 at the open
terminals of antenna no. 2 and a current I2 at the terminals of antenna no. 2
induces emf E12 at the open terminals of antenna no. 1 then E21=E12
PROVIDED I1=I2.

Assumptions:
1)emfs are of same frequency
2)medium between two antennas are linear passive and isotropic
3)generator producing emf and ammeter for producing current have zero
impedance or if not both the generator and ammeter impedances are equal
Transfer Impedance=Z12=E12/I2
Z21 =E21 /I1
From Reciprocity it follows

E12 E21
Z m  Z12  Z 21  
I2 I1
Proof: To prove the reciprocity theorem the space between antenna 1 and antenna
2 is replaced by a network of linear ,passive and bilateral impedances.
Z11,Z22=>Self Impedance of antenna 1 and 2 respectively
Zm=>Mutual Impedance between two antennas

1 I1 2
Z11 Z22

E12 Zm I2
1 2

2
1
 I1
1 2
Z11 Z22

Zm E21
I1 1 2

2
1
Applying kirchoff’s mesh law to loop 2

( Z 22  Z m ) I 2  Z m I1  0
Zm
I 2  I1
Z 22  Z m Eq1

Applying kirchoff’s mesh law to loop 1

( Z11  Z m ) I1  Z m I 2  E12
2
Zm
( Z11  Z m ) I1  I1  E12
( Z 22  Z m )
( Z11  Z m )( Z 22  Z m )  Z m
2
I1  E12
( Z 22  Z m )
Z11Z 22  Z11Z m  Z 22 Z m  Z m  Z m
2 2
I1  E12
( Z 22  Z m )
 Z11Z 22  Z11Z m  Z 22 Z m  Z m  Z m
2 2
I1  E12
( Z 22  Z m )
E12 ( Z 22  Z m )
I1 
Z11Z 22  Z11Z m  Z 22 Z m
E12 ( Z 22  Z m )
I1  Eq2
Z11Z 22  Z m ( Z11  Z 22 )

Putting value of I1 from eq 2 in eq 1

E12 ( Z 22  Z m ).Z m
I2 
[ Z11Z 22  Z m ( Z11  Z 22 )]( Z 22  Z m )
E12 Z m
I2  Eq 3
[ Z11Z 22  Z m ( Z11  Z 22 )]
Similarly the current I1 can be obtained by symmetry Suffix 2 may be replaced by 1
And vice versa
E21Z m
I1  Eq 4
[ Z11Z 22  Z m ( Z11  Z 22 )]
From Eq 3 and Eq 4 it is clear that if E21 and E12 are same then I1=I2
 Applications of Reciprocity
Theorem:-
1. Equality of Directional Patterns
Statement: 'The directional pattern of an antenna as a
receiving antenna is identical to that when used as a
transmitting antenna."
Proof: The above mentioned antenna theorem is the outcome of the application of
the reciprocity theorem used in the linear and bilateral networks.
• Basically a directional pattern of a transmitting antenna is represented as a polar
characteristic because it indicates the strength (amplitude) of the radiated field at
a fixed distance in several directions in the space. (As the amplitude and
direction, both are involved, it is called polar characteristics).
• Similar to this the directional pattern of a receiving antenna is also a polar
characteristic which indicates the response of the antenna for unit field strength
(amplitude) from different directions.

123
• To measure the directional pattern of an antenna as a transmitting
antenna, the test antenna is kept at the Centre of very large sphere and
the small dipole antenna is moved along the surface of this sphere as
shown in the Fig.

124
 A voltage V is connected to the test antenna placed at the centre of the imaginary
sphere and the current I flowing in short dipole antenna is measured using ammeter
at different positions.
 This current is the measure of the electric field at different positions of the dipole
antenna.
 Now using the concept of the reciprocity theorem, the positions of the voltage
excitation and the current measurement are interchanged.
 Now the same voltage V is applied to the terminals of the small dipole antenna
which is moved along the surface of the sphere and the current I is measured in the
test antenna located at the centre.
 Thus the receiving pattern for the test antenna can be obtained. But according to the
reciprocity theorem, for every location of the dipole antenna, the ratio of V to I is
same as before obtained for the test antenna as a transmitting antenna. Thus the
radiation pattern i.e. directional pattern of a receiving antenna is identical to that of
the transmitting antenna.

125
D = 4π Φ(θ,φ)max.
W

126
3. Equivalence of Transmitting and Receiving
Antenna Impedances
Statement: "The impedance of an isolated antenna
used for transmitting as well as receiving purposes
is identical."
Proof: Consider two antennas, namely A1 and A2, are widely
separated. As the antenna A2 is located far away from A1,
the self impedance of the antenna A1 can be written as,
Self impedance of A1 = Zs1 = V1 / I1 = Z11 ... (1)
when two antennas are separated widely, the mutual
impedance Z12 of the antenna A1 can be neglected if the
antenna A1 is used as a transmitting antenna.

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 But if the same antenna A1, is used as a receiving antenna the mutual
impedance Z12 cannot be neglected as it is the only parameter indicating
coupling between two antennas.
 So consider that load ZL is connected to the antenna A1 used as receiving
antenna. Similarly the coupling between A1 and A2 is represented with the help
of a mutual voltage Z12 I2 which is due to the mutual impedance Z12 and current
I2 in the antenna A2.
 The equivalent circuit of antenna used as a receiving antenna is as shown in the
Fig. 15 (a). Since the two antennas are separated with a large distance, the
variation in the load impedance ZL connected to the antenna A1 will not change
the current I2, in the antenna A2.
 Thus the generator of value Z12 I2 can be considered as an ideal generator with
zero internal impedance providing constant voltage at its output terminals.

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129
130
4. Equality of Effective Lengths (leff)-

Basically the effective length (leff) of an antenna represents the

effectiveness of an antenna as a radiator or collector. The effective length
(leff) is defined as the length of an equivalent linear antenna which has
current I(o) along its length at all points radiating the field strength in
direction perpendicular to the length same as actual antenna. The current
I(o) is the current at the antenna terminals.

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• For the transmitting antenna,

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