Professional Documents
Culture Documents
called engines. Most engines are cyclic devices
Gas cycle
Vapor cycle
• Refrigeration
Refrigerators, Heat Pumps , Air conditioning units
Heat Engines
A system that converts heat or thermal
energy to mechanical energy
Internal Combustion Engines
Spark Ignition (SI)Engines
Compression Ignition (CI) Engines
Gas Turbine
External Combustion Engines
Steam Power Plants
Four-Stroke Engines (SI & CI)
• Reciprocating engines
• Internal combustion engines
• Convert energy of the fuel into
motion
• The most common car engine type
• Relatively efficient
• Relatively inexpensive
Spark Ignition (SI) Engines
Combustion process of the air-fuel mixture is ignited
by a spark from a spark plug
Mostly use gasoline or petrol as the fuel
Can run on other fuels, such as methanol, ethanol,
bioethanol, compressed natural gas (CNG), hydrogen,
and (in drag racing) nitromethane
Either two-stroke or four-stroke
Lower compression ratio, therefore, lightweight and
achieve higher speed
Compression Ignition (CI) Engines
Use diesel as the fuel
Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber
Ignition is initiated by the high temperature which a gas
achieves when greatly compressed (adiabatic
compression).
Either two-stroke or four-stroke
Higher compression ratio, therefore, heavier and
achieve lower speed
Higher thermal efficiency
Main Component-Piston-Cylinder Device
Compression Ratio
The ratio of maximum volume (VBDC) to minimum
volume (VTDC) is an important parameter for a
reciprocating engine and is called the Compression
Ratio (CR)
CR=
Most SI engines have a compression ratio of 8-10
CI engines compression ratio ranges from 14-24
Usually between 14:1 and 16:1 for direct injection
engines, and between 18:1 and 23:1 for indirect injection
Processes in an actual Four-Stroke Engine
Intake: In this stroke the intake valve must be in the open position while the piston
pulls an air-fuel mixture into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the
cylinder through its downward motion.
Compression: In this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in
preparation for ignition during the power stroke (below). Both the intake and
exhaust valves are closed during this stage.
Power: At this point the crankshaft has completed a full 360 degree revolution.
While the piston is at T.D.C. (the end of the compression stroke) the compressed
air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug (in a gasoline engine) or by heat generated
by high compression (diesel engines), forcefully returning the piston to B.D.C. This
stroke produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the crankshaft.
Exhaust: During the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to T.D.C from
B.D.C while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent air-fuel mixture
through the exhaust valve.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-stroke_engine#/media/File:4StrokeEngine_Ortho
_3D_Small.gif
Actual Four-Stroke SI Engine
Challenges
Operate in a mechanical cycle, not in a thermodynamic
cycle
Factors to make an accurate analysis of a real internal
combustion engine practically impossible:
Throttling losses
Heat losses
Friction losses
Slow burning
Incomplete combustion is a very minor effect
To reduce the analysis to a manageable level,
approximations, commonly known as the AIR-STANDARD
assumptions, are utilized
Air-Standard Assumptions
The working fluid is air that continuously circulates in
a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.
All the processes that make up the cycle are internally
reversible.
The combustion process is replaced by a heat addition
process from an external source.
The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection
process that restores the working fluid to its initial
state.
COLD-AIR-STANDARD
Often utilized to simplify the analysis
further is that the air has constant specific
heat whose value is determined at room
temperature (25ºC, or 77ºF)
When this assumption is utilized, the air-
standard assumptions are called the COLD-
AIR-STANDARD assumptions
Ideal Cycles
Results are far from correct. However, from the study of
the idealized cycles, considerable insight are gained into
the characteristics of the real engines
Such an analysis will indicate the relative effect of the
principle variables, such as compression ratio, cycle
thermal efficiency, and relative size of apparatus
The Thermodynamics cycles used in the analysis of the
internal combustion reciprocating engines are the Otto
cycle (the ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines) and the
Diesel cycle (the ideal cycle for compression-ignition
engines)
Ideal Otto Cycle
P-V diagrams
for the
actual SI
engine (top)
and the ideal
Otto cycle
(bottom)
T-s diagram for the ideal Otto cycle
Thermal efficiency
The ratio of the work done by
an engine to the heat supplied
to it
Ideal Otto cycle Efficiency
The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system, and
thus the first-law relation for any of the processes is
expressed, on a unit mass basis, as:
q-w = ∆u (kJ/kg)
No work is involved during the two heat transfer processes
since both take places at constant volume
So:
Results
The analysis shows that for the Otto cycle the
efficiency is solely dependent upon the
compression ratio
Increasing the compression ratio will increase
the thermal efficiency
This is also true for the actual spark-ignition
engine
Otto cycle efficiency is the limit of a Spark ignition
engine efficiency
Engine Knock (Premature Ignition)
The fuel-air charge is meant to be ignited by the
spark plug only, and at a precise point in the piston's
stroke. Knock occurs when the peak of the
combustion process no longer occurs at the
optimum moment for the four-stroke cycle. The
shock wave creates the characteristic metallic
"pinging" sound, and cylinder pressure increases
dramatically. Effects of engine knocking range from
inconsequential to completely destructive.
Prevention
Engine knock can be prevented using
Higher octane fuels
Retarding ignition timing
Using a lower compression
ratio