The Analysis of Rankine Cycler

Background
Thermodynamics is the study of heat and
temperature and their relation to energy and
work. Through this study, it is possible to create
plants for power generation and predict the
amount of energy that can be extracted from
natural resources used. Modern day
thermodynamics and power plant systems are
developments of work from William Rankine, a
Scottish civil engineer. Rankine developed a
theoretical process, known as the Rankine Cycle,
which could produce electricity.
 Processes
The Rankine Cycle includes the following four steps:
1. Water is pumped into a closed container called a
boiler
2. Temperature and pressure of water is increased
as it is heated in the boiler and turns into steam
3. The steam expands through a turbine where
work is produced and pressure drops
4. The temperature of the exit steam is reduced,
condensing it back to water, before being pumped
back into the boiler
 Components
The four major components of a steam power plant are the boiler, the
turbine, the condenser, and the pump:
 Water is heated in the boiler, to begin the extraction of
energy.
 The turbine converts this energy into work as the high
temperature and high pressure steam that flows through,
rotates the blades and shaft. Steam exits the turbine at a
lower pressure.
 Steam enters the condenser, heat is removed allowing the
steam to cool and condense back to water. The rate at which
the steam is cooled depends on the coolant and method used
in the condenser.
 Finally, the work is supplied by the pump, in order to
transport the water back into the boiler, and repeat the cycle.
 Ideal Rankine Cycle
From a thermodynamic point of view, phenomenon that occurs at
each of these four stages, can be explained through an ideal cycle
consist of the following processes:

 1-2: Isentropic compression in pump

 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
 3-4: Isentropic expansion in turbine
 4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser
 Laws and Equations
• With knowledge of the operation and state
changes at each of the four components of
the Rankine Cycle, equations can be derived
to calculate how energy is transformed
through each process
• All the four components are steady flow
devices, thus all the processes that make up
the Rankine cycle can be analyzed as steady
flow processes (Figure 2)
 Pump
At state 1, water enters the pump as a saturated
liquid and is compressed isentropically to the
operating pressure of the boiler. The water
temperature increases during this isentropic
process due to a slight decrease in the specific
volume of the water. Assuming no heat transfer to
the surroundings, the work of the pump is as
follows:
Wpump,in = h2 – h1 = V1(P1 – P2)
• h1 = hf@P1 and V1 = Vf@P1
 Boiler
At state 2, water enters the boiler as a
compressed liquid. The boiler is basically a large
heat exchanger where the heat originating from
combustion gases is transferred to the water
essentially at constant pressure. The boiler
together with the section where steam is super-
heated is called as steam generator.
qin = h3 – h2
 Turbine
At state 3 superheated vapor enters the
turbine, where it expands isentropically
and produces work by rotating the shaft
connected to an electric generator. After
passing through the turbine, steam loses
temperature and pressure both

Wturbine,out = h3 - h4
 Condenser
At state 4, the cooled down steam enters the
condenser. It is a liquid-vapor mixture of high quality.
Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the
condenser, which is basically a large heat exchanger, by
rejecting the heat to a cooling medium such as a river
or atmosphere. Steam leaves the condenser as
saturated liquid and enters the pump and thus
completing the cycle :

qout = h4 – h1
Energy Balance & Thermal Efficiency
Overall, the energy balance of the entire system
is:
(qin- qout) - (wturbine, out - wpump, in) = 0

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine Cycle is

determined from:
ηth = wnet ,out/qin = 1 - qout/qin
Where the net work output from the cycle is:
Wnet ,out = Wturbine, out - Wpump, in = qin – qout
 Heat Rate
The conversion efficiency of power plants in the United
States is often expressed in terms of heat rate, which is
the amount of heat supplied, in BTUs to generate 1
kWh of electricity. The smaller the heat rate, greater
the efficiency. Considering that 1 kWh = 3412 Btu and
disregarding the losses associated with the conversion
of shaft power to electric power, the relation between
the heat rate and the thermal efficiency can be
expressed as
ηth = 3412 (Btu/kWh) / Heat rate (Btu/kWh)
 Actual vs. Ideal
• In an actual vapor cycle, irreversibility exist in forms of
friction and undesired heat loss to surroundings.
Therefore, compensation is added to maintain output.
• Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler, the
condenser, and the connecting pipes.
• To compensate for these pressure drops, the water
needs to be pumped to a higher pressure.
• Heat loss from steam to surroundings takes place when
steam flows through the connecting pipes and the
various components. To maintain the same work
output, more heat needs to be transferred to the steam
in the boiler.
 Isentropic Efficiency
The deviation of actual pumps and turbines
from the isentropic ones can be accounted for
by utilizing adiabatic efficiencies: The
following equations take these deviations into
account:
ηpump = Ws/Wa = (h2s- h1)/(h2a-h1)
ηturbine = Wa/Ws = (h3- h4a)/(h3-h4s)

Where the subscript “a” refers to the actual value and subscript “s”
refers to the isentropic value.
 The Rankine Cycler

• Manufactured by the Turbine Technologies, the

Rankine Cycler utilizes three of the four main
components (boiler, turbine/generator, and condenser),
• Instrumentation including a Flow meter,
thermocouples, pressure transducers, and a PC data-
acquisition system. various meters, thermocouples,
controls, and a PC data-acquisition system are included
As a pump is not used to recirculate
the water, the system models an “open
cycle,” where water is introduced to
the system via storage in the boiler,
and collected after the condenser.
However, this system can still be used
to accurately determine similar
aspects of a closed Rankine Cycle.
 Boiler
The Boiler is a dual-pass, flame through tube-type unit. A forced
air gas burner fires it. The burner fan speed is electronically
adjustable to operate with a minimum of excess air. The
system’s purpose-built burner fan results in extremely clean
combustion while burning LP gas. A vortex disc, located
downstream of the blower, mixes fuel and air, and sets up a
vortex gas flow. Heat is efficiently transferred from the flame
tube to the boiler’s water.
The boiler is shell and tube style construction. Given
the basic construction dimensions, the available
volume for water in the boiler can be calculated.

Main Shell External Length = 29.65 cm

Main Shell Wall Thickness = 0.64 cm

End Plate Outside Diameter = 20.70 cm

End Plate wall thickness = 0.64 cm

Main Flame Tube Outside Diameter =

5.08 cm

16 Return Pass Flame Tubes Outside

Diameter = 1.90 cm
 Steam Turbine / Generator Set

The steam turbine consists of the

following major components:
1. A precision machined stainless
steel front and rear housing.
2. Front and rear bronze
bearings.
3. Front and rear bearing oilers.
4. A stainless steel shaft.
5. A nozzle ring and a single stage
shrouded impulse turbine wheel.
A CAD cutaway of the turbine
shows:
1. Steam enters inlet port.
2. Steam flow forced through
slits in stator ring (purple),
impinging on turbine blades,
spinning turbine wheel (red).
3. Steam exits turbine to
condenser
 Condenser Tower
The condenser tower provides
cooling to the waste steam so that
it will change phase back to a
liquid. The condenser tower’s
outer mantle is formed from a
single piece of aluminum. Turbine
exhaust steam is piped into the
bottom of the tower. The steam is
kept in close contact with the
outside mantle by means of 4
baffles. A drain hose and clamp
are located at the left rear of the
system. Following an experiment,
the condensate can be drained
into a beaker and measured.
 Other Components
• Sight Glass
– A sight glass is provided to indicate boiler water
level. Two level indicators, set by thumbscrew
bezels, can be adjusted at the beginning and end
of each experiment to determine steam rate
(water volume divided by start and stop times).
• Fuel
– Liquid Propane (LP) is vaporized and used as boiler
burner fuel. The LP has the energy content of
2520 Btu/ft3 or 93756 kJ/m3