Chapter 19-1:

Bulk Deformation Processes-I

Rizwan M. Gul
NWFP UET

Page 1
 BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES
IN METALWORKING
• Rolling
• Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling
• Forging
• Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging
• Extrusion
• Wire and Bar Drawing

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 Bulk Deformation

• Metal forming operations which cause significant

shape change by deformation in metal parts whose
initial form is bulk rather than sheet
• Starting forms: cylindrical bars and billets, rectangular
billets and slabs, and similar shapes
• Bulk deformation process also sometimes improve
the mechanical properties of materials
• These processes work by stressing metal sufficiently
to cause plastic flow into desired shape
• Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations

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 Importance of Bulk Deformation

• When performed as hot working, significant shape

change can be accomplished
• When performed as cold working , strength can be
increased during shape change
• Little or no waste - some bulk deformation operations
are near net shape or net shape processes
 The parts require little or no subsequent
machining

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 Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes

1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between

opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between
opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening,
thereby taking the shape of the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is
reduced by pulling it through a die opening

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BASIC BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

(a) Rolling (b) Forging

(c) Extrusion (d) Drawing Page 6

 Rolling
• Rolling is a deformation process in which work thickness is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls
• The rotating rolls perform two main functions:
 Pull the work into the gap between them by friction
between workpart and rolls
 Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross section

Figure 19.1 - The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling) Page 7

 Types of Rolling
• By geometry of work:
 Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross-section
 Shape rolling - a square cross-section is formed into a
shape such as an I-beam
• By temperature of work:
 Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of
deformation required in shaping
 Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock
• Rolling is a very capital intensive process, as massive
pieces of equipment, called rolling mills, are required to
perform it:
 The high investment cost requires the mills to be used
for large production of standard items such as sheets
and plates

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 Steel Rolling Practice
• The work starts out as a cast steel ingot that has just solidified
by casting
• While it is still hot, the ingot is placed in a furnace where it
remains for many hours until it has reached a uniform
temperature throughout
 For steel the temperature is around 1200 C
 The heating operation is called soaking and furnace is
called soaking pits
• The ingot is then rolled into one of three intermediate products
called: Bloom, Slab, or Billet
 Bloom: Square cross-section of 150 mm or higher
 Slab: Rectangular cross-section of width 250 mm or more and
thickness 40 mm or more
 Billet: Square cross-section of 40 mm or higher
• These intermediate shapes are subsequently rolled into
product shapes Page 9
Flat- and Shape-Rolling Processes

Page 10
Figure 19.2 - Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill

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Flat Rolling and Its Analysis

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 Flat Rolling – Terminology
Draft = amount of thickness reduction
d t o t f
where d = draft; to = starting thickness; and tf = final
thickness
Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of starting
stock thickness:
d
r 
to
where r = reduction

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 Flat-Rolling

Figure 13.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process. (b) Friction forces acting on strip
surfaces. (c) The roll force, F, and the torque acting on the rolls. The width w of the strip usually increases
during rolling, as is shown in Fig. 13.5.

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Ways to Reduce Force and/or Power in Rolling

Force and/or power to roll a strip of a given width and work

material can be reduced by any of the following:
1. Using hot rolling rather than cold rolling to reduce
strength and strain hardening (K and n) of the work
material [ Y  K n ]
f
2. Reducing the draft in each pass [ L  R(to  t f ]
3. Using a smaller roll radius R to reduce force
[ L  R(to  t f ]
4. Using a lower rolling speed N to reduce power

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 Example 9.1

A 300 mm wide strip 25 mm thick is fed through a

rolling mill with two powered rolls each of radius =
250 mm. The work thickness is to be reduced to 22
mm in one pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The
work material has a flow curve defined by K = 275
MPa and n = 0.15, and the coefficient of friction
between the rolls and the work is assumed to be
0.12. Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit
the rolling operation to be accomplished. If so,
calculate the roll force, torque, and the horsepower.

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 Shape Rolling

• In shape rolling, the work is deformed into a

contoured cross-section rather than flat (rectangular)
• Accomplished by passing work through rolls that
have the reverse of desired shape
• Gradual transformation through several rolls to
achieve final cross-section is achieved by designing a
specific roll-pass design
• Products include:
 Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams,
and U-channels
 Rails for railroad tracks
 Round and square bars and rods

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Shape Rolling

Figure 13.13 Stages in the

shape rolling of an H-section
part. Various other structural
sections, such as channels and
I-beams, are also rolled by this
kind of process.

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Figure 19.5 - A
rolling mill for hot
flat rolling; the
steel plate is
seen as the
glowing strip
extending
diagonally from
the lower left
corner
(photo courtesy
of Bethlehem
Steel Company)

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Rolling Mill

Figure 13.10 A general

view of a rolling mill.
Source: Inland Steel.

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 Rolling Mills
• Equipment is massive and expensive
• Various rolling-mill configurations are available to deal
with the variety of applications and technical problems in
the rolling process
• Rolling mill configurations:
 Two-high:
 two opposing large diameter rolls
 can be either reversing or nonreversing
 Three-high: work passes through both directions
 Four-high:
 backing rolls support smaller work rolls,
 smaller diameter rolls means lower forces, torque
and power
 Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
 Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills
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 Various Configurations of Rolling mills

(a) 2-high rolling mill (b) 3-high rolling mill

(c) four-high rolling mill

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 Cluster Mill
Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll diameters

Figure 19 6 - Various configurations of rolling mills: (d) cluster mill

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 Backing Roll Arrangements

Figure 13.11 Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) two-high; (b) three- high; (c)
four-high; (d) cluster (Sendzimir) mill.

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 Tandem Rolling Mill
• A series of rolling stands (two-high mills) in sequence
• Helps achieve higher throughput rates in standard
products
• As thickness is increased in each rolling step, work
velocity increases, and the problem of synchronizing
the roll speeds at each stand is a significant one

Figure 19.6 - Various configurations of rolling mills: (e) tandem rolling mill
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Tandem Rolling

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 OTHE DEFORMATION PROCESSES
RELATED TO ROLLING

• Thread Rolling
• Gear Rolling
• Ring Rolling
• Roll Piercing or Mannesmann Mill

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 Thread Rolling and Gear Rolling
• Bulk deformation process used to form threads on
cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies
• Most important commercial process for mass
producing bolts and screws
• Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines
• Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
 Higher production rates
 Better material utilization
 Stronger threads due to work hardening
 Better fatigue resistance due to compressive
stresses introduced by rolling
• Gera rolling is a cold working process similar to
thread rolling

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Figure 19.7 - Thread rolling with flat dies:
(1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle

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 Ring Rolling
• Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of
smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of
larger diameter
• As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal
elongates, causing diameter of ring to be enlarged
• Hot working process for large rings and cold working
process for smaller rings
• Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires
for railroad wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure
vessels, and rotating machinery
• Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation,
strengthening through cold working

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Figure 19.8 - Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and
increase the diameter of a ring:
(1) start, and (2) completion of process

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 Roll Piercing or Mannesmann Process

• A specialized hot working process for making seamless

thick-walled tubes
• Process is based on principle:
 When a solid cylindrical part is compressed on its
circumference, high tensile stresses are developed at
its center
 If compression is high enough, an internal crack is
formed
• Compressive stresses on a solid cylindrical billet are
applied by two rolls, whose axes are oriented at slight
angles from the axis of the billet, so that their rotation
tends to pull the billet though the rolls
• A mandrel is used to control the size and finish of the hole

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 Roll Piercing or
Mannesmann Process or
Rotary Tube Piercing

Figure 13.17 Cavity formation in a solid round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube piercing
process for making seamless pipe and tubing. (The Mannesmann mill was developed in the 1880s.)
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 Forging

• Deformation process in which work is compressed

between two dies, using either impact or gradual
pressure to form the part
• Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from
about 5000 B C
• Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods,
gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine
turbine parts
• In addition, basic metals industries use forging to
establish basic form of large components that are
subsequently machined to final shape and size

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 Classification of Forging Operations
• Cold vs. hot forging:
 Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the
significant deformation and the need to reduce
strength and increase ductility of work metal
 Cold forging - advantage is increased strength that
results from strain hardening
• Impact vs. press forging:
 Forge hammer - applies an impact load
 Forge press - applies gradual pressure

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 Types of Forging Dies
The distinction is based on the degree to which the flow
of work metal is constrained by the dies
• Open-die forging - work is compressed between two
flat (or almost flat) dies, allowing metal to flow
laterally without constraint
• Impression-die forging - die surfaces contain a cavity
or impression that is imparted to workpart, thus
constraining metal flow - flash is created (excess
material that is trimmed off)
• Flashless forging - workpart is completely
constrained in die and no excess flash is produced

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Figure 19.10 - Three types of forging: (a) open-die forging

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Figure 19.10 - Three types of forging (b) impression-die forging

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Figure 19.10 - Three types of forging (c) flashless forging

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 Open-Die Forging

• Involves compression of workpart with cylindrical

cross-section between two flat dies
• Similar to compression test
• Deformation operation reduces height and increases
diameter of work
• Common names include upsetting or upset forging
• Open die hot forging is an important process to
produce shafts, disks and rings: Used for shaping a
large square ingot into a round cross-section creating
favorable grain flow and metallurgical structure

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 Open-Die Forging with No Friction
• If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces,
then homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial
flow is uniform throughout workpart height and true
strain is given by:
ho
  ln
h
where ho= starting height; and h = height at some
point during compression
• At h = final value hf, true strain is maximum value
• Force required to continue the compression at any
given height h: F =Yf A

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Figure 19.11 - Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart
under ideal conditions in an open-die forging operation:
(1) start of process with workpiece at its original length and
diameter, (2) partial compression, and (3) final size

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 Open-Die Forging with Friction

• Friction between work and die surfaces constrains

lateral flow of work, resulting in barreling effect
• In hot open-die forging, effect is even more
pronounced due to heat transfer at and near die
surfaces, which cools the metal and increases its
resistance to deformation
• The above factors causes the actual upsetting force
to be greater than with no friction case: F =Kf Yf A
where Kf is the forging shape factor given by
equation: 0.4D
K f  1
h

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 Figure 19.12 - Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in
open-die forging, showing pronounced barreling:
(1) start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape

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 Example 19.2

A cylindrical workpiece is subjected to a cold upset

forging operation. The starting piece is 75 mm in
height and 50 mm in diameter. It is reduced in the
operation to a height of 36 mm. The work material
has a flow curve defined by K=350 MPa and n=0.17.
Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1. Determine the
force as the process begins, at intermediate heights
of 62 mm, 49 mm, and at the final height of 36 mm.

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 Impression Die or Closed Die Forging
• Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of the
desired part shape (see Figure)
• Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into
small gap between die plates
• Flash must be later trimmed from part, but it serves an
important function during compression:
 As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into
gap, constraining material to fill die cavity
 In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling
of thin flash against cool die plates, thereby increasing
its resistance to deformation
 Restricting the metal flow in the gap increases
compression pressures in the part, thus forcing the
material to fill all the intricate details of the die cavity
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Figure 19.15 - Sequence in impression-die forging:
(1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,
(2) partial compression, and
(3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates

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 Impression-Die Forging Practice
• Several forming steps often required, with separate
die cavities for each step to transform starting blank
into the desired final geometry
 Beginning steps redistribute metal for more
uniform deformation and desired metallurgical
structure in subsequent steps
 Final steps bring the part to its final geometry
 In addition, when drop forging is used, several
blows of he hammer may be required for each
step
 Impression-die forging is often performed
manually by skilled operator under adverse
conditions
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 Forging a Connecting Rod
Figure 14.7 (a) Stages in
forging a connecting rod for an
internal combustion engine.
Note the amount of flash
required to ensure proper
filling of the die cavities. (b)
Fullering, and (c) edging
operations to distribute the
material when preshaping the
blank for forging.

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 Analysis of Impression-Die Forging

• Because of flash formation in impression-die forging

and the more complex part shapes made with these
dies, forces in this process are significantly greater
and more difficult to analyze than in open-die forging
• For estimation: F =Kf Yf A
 Where F is max. force in operation, A the projected area
including flash, and Kf forging shape factor (Table 19.1)
 F the max force is at the end of the stroke and determines
the required capacity for the forging hammer or press

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 Impression-Die Forging
Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:
 Higher production rates
 Conservation of metal (less waste)
 Greater strength
 Favorable grain orientation in the metal
• Limitations:
 Not capable of close tolerances
 Machining often required to achieve accuracies
and features needed, such as holes, threads, and
mating surfaces that fit with other components

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 True Closed Die Forging or Flashless
Forging or Precision Forging
• The raw material is completely contained within the die
cavity during compression, and no flash is formed
• Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume
within very close tolerance
• Process control more demanding than impression-die
forging
• If the starting blank is too small, the cavity will not be
filled; while if the blank is too small, the cavity will not be
filled
• Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
• Often classified as a precision forging process
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 Figure 19.18 - Flashless forging:
(1) just before initial contact with workpiece,
(2) partial compression, and
(3) final punch and die closure

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 Forging Dies, Hammers and Presses

• Equipment used in forging consists of:

 Forging Machines:
 Forging Hammers
 Forging Presses
 Forging Dies (special tooling used in these machines)
 Auxiliary Equipment:
 Furnaces to heat the work
 Mechanical Devises to load and unload the work
 Trimming stations to cut flash

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 Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)
• Operate by applying an impact load against workpart
 The upper portion of the forging is attached to the ram, and
the lower portion is attached to the anvil
 In the operation, the work is placed on the lower die, and the
ram is lifted and dropped
 When the upper die strikes the work, the impact energy
causes the part to assume the form of the die cavity. Several
blows may be required
• The two types are:
 Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling weight of
a heavy ram
 Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air
or steam
• Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil into floor
of building
• Most commonly used for impression-die forging
Page 55
Drop forging hammer, fed
by conveyor and Diagram showing details
heating units at the of a drop hammer for
right of the scene impression-die forging

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 Forging Presses
• Apply gradual pressure to accomplish the forging
operation - the types include:
 Mechanical presses - converts rotation of drive
motor into linear motion of ram. Operate by means
of eccentrics or cranks and achieve high forces at
bottom of the stroke.
 Hydraulic presses - hydraulic piston actuates ram
 Screw presses – apply force by screw mechanism
that drives ram
 Both hydraulic and screw type operate at low ram
speeds and can provide a constant force
throughout the stroke

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 Impression-Forging Dies

• Proper die design is important in the success of a

forging operation
• Terminology: Parting line, draft, webs and ribs, fillet
and corner radii, and flash and flash gutter

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 Other Deformation Processes Related to
Forging
• Upsetting and Heading
• Swaging and Radial Forging
• Roll Forging
• Orbital Forging
• Hubbing
• Isothermal and Hot Die Forging
• Trimming

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 Upsetting and Heading
• Upsetting is a deformation operation in which a
cylindrical workpart is increased in diameter and
reduced in length
• Used in fastener industry to form heads on nails,
bolts, and similar hardware products
• More parts produced by upsetting than any other
forging operation
• Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called
headers or formers
• Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed,
then piece is cut to length
• For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to
form threads
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Figure 19.23 - An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt
or similar hardware item The cycle consists of:
(1) wire stock is fed to the stop
(2) gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is retracted
(3) punch moves forward
(4) bottoms to form the head

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Figure 19.24 - Examples of heading (upset forging) operations:
(a) heading a nail using open dies
(b) round head formed by punch
(c) and (d) two common head styles for screws formed by die
(e) carriage bolt head formed by punch and die

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 Swaging
• Forging processes used to reduce the diameter of a tube
or solid rod stock, often performed on the end of a
workpiece to create a tapered section
• Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece
radially inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies
• Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of
internal diameter of tubular parts

Swaging process to reduce

solid rod stock; the dies
rotate as they hammer the
work In radial forging, the
workpiece rotates while the
dies remain in a fixed
orientation as they hammer
the work
Page 63
 Roll-Forging
• Used to reduce the cross-section of a cylindrical (or
rectangular) workpiece by passing it trough a set of opposing
rolls that have grooves matching the desired shape of the
final part. Used to produce knifes and other cutlery items
• The rolls do not turn continuously in roll forging but rotate
through only a portion of one revolution corresponding to the
desired deformation to be accomplished on a part

Figure 14.13 Two examples of the roll-forging operation, also known as cross-
rolling. Tapered leaf springs and knives can be made by this process. Page 64
 Isothermal Forging
• Hot forging operation in which the workpart is
maintained at or near its starting elevated
temperature by heating the forging dies to the same
elevated temperature
• Surface cooling and the resulting thermal gradients in
the workpart are eliminated
• The metal flows more readily and the force required
to perform the process is reduced, however, weakens
the tools and reduces tool life
• Suitable for difficult-to-forge metals such as titanium
and superalloys, and for complex part shapes

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 Trimming
• Cutting (or shearing) operation to remove flash from
workpart in impression-die forging
• Usually done while work is still hot, so a separate trimming
press is included at the forging station
• Trimming can also be done by alternative methods, such
as grinding or sawing

Trimming operation
(shearing process) to
remove the flash after
impression-die forging
Blades of the cutting
die have the profile of
the desired part

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 Home Work # 3 & 4 (Due Date )
• The following project is assigned to get practical know-how
of the deformation processes, and to be more familiar with
the local manufacturing industry of the region.
• You will have to visit a local industry involved in deformation
processes and communicate with Technical Manager(s) or
General Manager to gain in-depth knowledge about the
industry. Select an industry that can be accessed easily,
visit the industry and get detail knowledge about its
processing methods, procedure used in the setup and the
types (and names) of the products produced.
• A short report maximum four pages will have to be
submitted outlining in detail the name and location of the
industry visited, processing methods employed, and the
products produced by the industry. Any samples obtained
and photographs taken will also be useful in evaluating the
report.
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