Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Presented by
Ahmad Mostafa
Tian Wang
Mohammad Mahdipoor
• Introduction
• The laws of thermodynamics are the laws
which summarize the properties of
energy and its transformation from one
form to another.
• The title of the book does not contain the
word of thermodynamics because of the
boundlessly important and fascinating
aspect of nature of the role of the energy
in the world.
• From this book you will know what drives
the universe.
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• Introduction
• The mighty handful consists of four laws,
with the numbering starting at zero and
ending at three.
• The first and second laws (the zeroth and
the first), introduce two familiar we consider first
properties, the temperature and the the observational
energy. aspects of each
law, then dive
• The third law (the second), introduces the below the surface
most enigmatic property, the entropy, it of bulk matter and
is a great law because it illustrates why discover the
ANYTHING from the cooling of hot matter interpretation of
happens at all. the laws in terms
• The fourth law (the third), a barrier of concepts that
prevents us to reach absolute zero. There inhabit the
underworld of
is a world that lies below zero.
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atoms.
• The Zeroth Law- The concept of temperature
The zeroth term:
It was not dignified with a name and
number until early in the twentieth century.
By then, the first and second laws were
established and no hope of going back
and numbering them again.
Thermodynamics,
Although the zeroth law establishes the meaning of takes terms with an
the most familiar property, but in fact it is the most everyday meaning
enigmatic: temperature. and sharpens them,
to give the exact
The system: is the part of the universe that is at meanings
the centre of attention in thermodynamics.
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• The Zeroth Law- The concept of temperature
The Surroundings: the container which
circumscribes each of the system entities. The
surroundings are where we stand to make
observations on the system and its properties.
Let us consider the surrounding is a water bath
maintained at constant temperature, this will be
more controllable than the true surroundings,
the rest of the world. Universe
The universe: is the system and its surroundings
joined to each others. For example, it might be
a beaker of water (the system) immersed in a
water bath (the surrounding).
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System surrounding
• The Zeroth Law- The concept of temperature
A system is defined by its
boundary. If matter can be
added to or removed from the
system, then it is said to be open.
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• The Zeroth Law- The concept of temperature
Properties are divided into two classes. An
extensive property depends on the quantity of
matter in the system, such as the mass and the
volume of the system.
An extensive property
M1 V1 M2 V2 2 kg of iron
(M1, V1) ≠ (M2, V2) occupies twice the
volume of 1 kg of
iron; whereas, the
An intensive property is independent of the density of the iron
amount of matter present, such as the is 7.8 g/cm3
temperature and the density. regardless or
whether we have a
1 kg block or 2 kg
block.
An intensive property
T1 ρ1 T2 ρ2
(T1, ρ1) = (T2, ρ 2)
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• The Zeroth Law- The concept of temperature
Two pistons are connected to each others so
as if one moves in the other will moves out.
If the pin removed and one
of the pistons drives the
other, then we can say that Zeroth law of
the pressure is higher in the thermodynamics:
driving piston. If A is in thermal
equilibrium with B,
The system is mechanically in equilibrium if the and B is in thermal
pressure is the same in both pistons. equilibrium with C,
“Thermodynamicists get very excited, or then C will be in
thermal equilibrium
at least get very interested, when nothing with A.
happens” [Page 6].
Thermal
equilibrium
Both have the
same
temperature
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• The Zeroth Law- The concept of temperature
Two new words added to thermodynamic
vocabulary:
Diathermic (through) and (warm): any wall
permits conducting of heat.
T1 T2 T T Examples:
An example on
diathermic system is
Adiabatic (impassable): if no change occurs the copper wall.
and the temperatures are still the same on Whereas, the
adiabatic system is
both sides of the wall. represented as if the
system is embedded
in foamed
T1 T2
polystyrene.
T1 T2
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• The Zeroth Law- The concept of temperature
Simply, the zeroth law basis can be observed
in the thermometer used to measure the
temperature of the room.
Thermodynamic temperatures
are denoted by the scale of
absolute temperature (Kelvin
scale), which is the lowest
possible temperature.
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• The Zeroth Law- The concept of temperature
Classical thermodynamics is a part of
thermodynamics that used before accepting
the atoms.
Statistical thermodynamics. We do not need to
think about the behavior of individual atoms,
but we need to think about the average
behavior of infinite number of atoms.
The pressure exerted
duo to the impact of
the average of the
storm of molecules
on the wall.
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• The First Law- The conservation of energy
The first law:
The energy can be neither created
nor destroyed.
Es1 Es2
(Es1) > (Es2)
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• The First Law- The conservation of energy
The state function is a thermodynamic property
of a system that depends only on the current
state of the system and independent of how the
state was prepared; such as the internal energy
(U).
The observation that
different ways of doing
work on a system and
thereby changing its
state between fixed
The work required which represents the initial and endpoints required the
final values of the internal energy = U final – U initial same amount of work of
different paths resulted in
Heat: is the transfer of energy as a result of a the same altitude
temperature difference. (Internal energy).
Once the energy is inside the system, either by making use of the
uniform motion of atoms in the surroundings or of randomly oscillating
atoms, there is no memory of how it was transferred.
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• The First Law- The conservation of energy
A reversible process is one that is reversed by
infinitesimal modification of the condition in the
surroundings.
If a piston is in equilibrium
within the environment,
then any infinitesimal
change will affect the
piston motion, either
No greater work can be done, because if at any stage expands or retracts to
the external pressure is increased even infinitesimally, compensate for the
then the piston will move in rather than out amount of the exerted
change.
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• Steam engine
En
erg piston
y
Efficiency(ε) = 1 − Tsink/Tsource
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• Kelvin realized that to take away the surroundings would stop the
heat engine in its tracks. To be more precise, the Kelvin statement
of the second law of thermodynamics is as follows: no cyclic
process is possible in which heat is taken from a hot source and
converted completely into work.
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absolute entropy of any system could be calculated from a
very simple formula:
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The concept of entropy is the foundation of the operation of
heat engines, heat pumps, and refrigerators.
Thus, when a given quantity of heat is removed from a cool body, there is a
large decrease in entropy. When that heat is released into warmer
surroundings, there is an increase in entropy, but the increase is smaller than
the original decrease because the temperature is higher. Therefore, overall
there is a net decrease in entropy.
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Our body is also like “steam engine”, an increase in entropy is
the metabolism of the food and the dispersal of energy and
matter that metabolism releases. Thus, as we eat, so we grow.
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Free Energy: The availability of work
• Free energy? Surely not! How can energy be free?
• Free energy , energy is free to do work not monetarily free ..
• A combustion at constant pressure, released energy as heat is given by the change
of enthalpy, change in internal energy of a certain value. The system has to pay a
tax to the surroundings to drive back the atmosphere in order to make room for the
products. So, the energy that can be released as heat is less than the change in
internal energy.
• It is also possible for there to be a tax refund in the sense that if the system can
contract. In this case the surroundings do work on the system, energy is transferred
into it, and the system can release more heat than is given by the change in internal
energy: the system recycles the incoming work as outgoing heat.
• So,
A = U − TS, ΔA = ΔU − T ΔSsystem
A is also known as the ‘work function’ and given the symbol A. (because Arbeit is the
German word for work)
Free Energy: The availability of work
• T ΔS is a tax that the surroundings demand from the system in order
to compensate for the reduction in entropy of the system, and only
ΔU − TΔS is left for the system to pay out as work. Now, entropy of the
system increase, process is already spontaneous, and no tax need
be paid to the surroundings. better than that, the surroundings can
be allowed to supply energy as heat to the system, because they
can tolerate a decrease in entropy yet the entropy of the universe
will still increase. In other words, the system can receive a tax
refund.
T TS G
Sice < Swater < Swater vapor
At low temperatures: Hsolid < Hliquid < Hgas
The natural direction of change at constant
pressure is to lower Gibbs energy
(corresponding to greater total entropy)
Free Energy: The availability of work
All Failed !!
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The third law: Unattainability of zero
• The common feature of this collective failure is traced to the
convergence of the substances entropies to a common value as T
approaches zero. So, we can replace the phenomenological statement
of the third law with a slightly more sophisticated version expressed in
terms of the entropy:
The entropy of every pure, perfectly crystalline substance approaches the
same value as the temperature approaches zero.
• Note that the experimental evidence and the third law do not tell us the
absolute value of the entropy of a substance at T = 0. All the law implies
is that all substances have the same entropy at T = 0 provided they have
nondegenerate ground states. However, it is expedient and sensible to
choose the common value for the entropy of all perfectly crystalline
substances as zero, and thus we arrive at the conventional ‘entropy’
statement of the third law:
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The third law: Unattainability of zero
• Intriguing consequential question, Its possible to contrive special
technique to take a sample at negative temperature !?
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The third law: Unattainability of zero
• The first law is independent of how populations are distributed.
So, in a region of negative temperature, energy is conserved
and the internal energy may be changed by doing work or
making use of a temperature difference.
• The second law survives because the definition of entropy
survives, but its implications are different.
One system with negative temperature and one system with positive
temperature, there is an overall increase in entropy when heat is
transferred from a region of negative temperature to one of positive
temperature. The only difference between this discussion and the
conventional one is that, the heat flows from the system with the lower
(negative) temperature to the one with the higher (positive)
temperature.
If both systems have a negative temperature, heat flows spontaneously
from the system with the higher (less negative) temperature to the
system with the lower (more negative) temperature.
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The third law: Unattainability of zero
• The efficiency of a heat engine, direct consequence of the second law, is
defined by the Carnot expression. (ε = 1 − Tsink/Tsource)
• However, if the temperature of the cold reservoir is negative, the efficiency
of the engine may be greater than 1 !!
• Example:
Extracting heat (q) from a source at a temperature 300 K, the entropy decreases by
q/(300 K). Also withdraw heat (qʹ) from the sink at −200 K, its entropy increases by qʹ
/(200 K). The total change is positive provided that qʹ /(200 K) is at least equal to
q/(300 K). Both contributions can be converted into work without changing the
entropy, so the work we can get is equal to q + qʹ. The efficiency is (work done)/(heat
absorbed from the hot source), or (q + qʹ)/q = 1 + (200 K/300 K) = 1.67.
• If both the source and the sink of a heat engine are at negative
temperatures, the efficiency is less than 1, and the work done is the
conversion of the energy withdrawn as heat from the ‘warmer’, less
negative, sink.
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The third law: Unattainability of zero
• The third law requires a slight amendment on
account of the discontinuity of the thermal
properties of a system across T = 0.
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Thank You
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