Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2 Year
Chapter 13
Electromagnetism
Outline
• Magnetic Field
• Force on a current Carrying Conductor
• Magnetic Flux
• Ampere’s LAW
• Magnetic Field Due to a Current Carrying Solenoid
• Application of Magnetic Field
• Motion of a Charged Particle in Uniform Magnetic Field
• Torque on a Current Carrying Loop/Coil
• Galvanometer
• Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter
• Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter
• Avometer-Multimeter
Electromagnetism
• Magnetic induction tells us how to close together magnetic field line are, as
it tells the strength of the magnetic field
• Now we define another quantity of magnetic flux that is Dot Product of
magnetic induction B and vector area element ∆A
• Magnetic Flux denoted by symbol θ is given by
∆Φ=B. ∆A…………………..(13.3)
=B ∆A cosθ
Where ∆ Φ represents magnetic field lines passing through vector area
element ∆A placed perpendicular to field. Direction of vector area element ∆A
is normal to surface area
Cons….
𝝫
• Using 13.3 we can see that B=
𝑨
• So magnetic induction B can also be defined as magnetic flux per unit area
and is called magnetic flux density
• So, 1T=1Wb 𝑚−2
13.4 Ampere’s LAW
• Ampere’s circuital Law was discovered by Andre Marie Ampere in 1826
• Relates integrated magnetic field in a loop around a current carrying wire to
current passing through wire
• As we know that there is magnetic field around current carrying wire. If we
consider a closed path around the wire in the form of a circle having wire at
the center, then magnitude of magnetic flux density B changes with the
current I in the wire and distance “r” from the wire.
• So, B∝i
1
and B∝
𝑟
𝑖
or B∝
𝑟
Cons…
Summing up all around the circular path
𝑖
B=µο πr
2
• Where θ=angle between plane of coil and magnetic field and ‘b’ is moment arm of
couple. From equation 13.13 we have
λ=NBi a(b cos 𝜃)
=NBi (ab) cos 𝜃 = NBiA cos 𝜃……………….(13.14)
• Where A=area of coil. Maximum torque is BiNA it occurs when angle 𝜃=0 that is
when plane of coil is parallel to magnetic field or normal to plane is perpendicular
to field.
• When plane coil is perpendicular to magnetic field or normal to it is parallel to field
then torque is zero.
MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MRI: Principle
• MRI systems are able to generate high quality diagnostic images through
use of magnetic field. The human body is composed primarily of fat and
water, it is made up mostly of hydrogen atoms.
• By applying short radio frequency (RF) pulses to a specific anatomical slice,
the promotion in slice absorb energy at this resonant frequency causing
them to spin perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Cons…
• As the protons relax back into alignment with magnetic field a signal is received by
an RF coil.
• This signal acts as an antenna and is processed by a computer to produce
diagnostic images of areas of body. The brain consists of two distinct regions:
while matter which is composed of myelinated nerve fiber's and grey matter which
consists of nerve cell bodies.
• These two regions interact to perform critical information processing and damage
to either region causes brain dysfunction. Notably, the white matter is referred to
as being ‘white due to the light color of myelin insulation covering the nerve
fiber's.
• Now magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used widely to study brain function
where damage to white matter is seen as bright areas.
• MRI is also capable of imaging such as movement of the wall of heart and the
injection of fluid into a blood vessel in order to reach an organ or tissue.
• MRI is able to create detailed images to assist in diagnosis of cancer heart disease.
13.8 Galvanometer
• A moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used for detection and
measurement of small electric currents.
• Its principle is that current carrying loop placed in a magnetic field
experiences a torque. A simplified version of a galvanometer is shown
schematically.
• Most modern galvanometer are of moving-coil type and are called
d’Arsonval Galvanometers. It mainly consist of a rectangular coil ABCD of
fine wire wrapped around an aluminum frame is suspended by conducing
ribbons.
• A soft iron core F is fixed between cylindrically concave poles N and S of a
permanent magnet. The suspension wire T1 is used as one current lead to
coil and the other terminal of coil is connected to a loosely wound spiral T2
which serves second current lead.
• A cylinder of soft iron is placed at Centre of coil which intensifies magnetic
field and makes it radial by concentrating magnetic field lines due to high
permeability (and gives more inertia to coil)
Cons…
• When a current ‘i’ flows through coil, a magnetic field B is set up which
interacts with that of permanent magnet producing a torque ‘𝜏’.
=NIAB cos 𝛼
In this expression
N= number of turns in coil, A= area per turns of coil
B= magnetic induction of radial magnetic field
𝛼= angle between plane of coil and direction of 𝐵
Since magnetic field is radial plane of coil is parallel to magnetic field B, so
𝜏= NBiA………………………………..(13.14)
• The torque rotates coil and twists suspension ribbon until it is fully resisted
by suspension. As a result restoring torque comes into play trying to restore
coil back to original position.
Cons…
• If 𝜃 be the twist produced in strip and ‘C’ be the restoring torque per unit twist
then:
Restoring torque= 𝜏=C 𝜃…………………………….(13.15)
• When coil is in equilibrium then deflecting torque is equal to restoring torque.
Then from Eq: (13.14) and (13.15)
𝐶𝜃
NBiA= C 𝜃 or i= ……………………(13.16)
𝑁𝐴𝐵
• From Eq: 13.16 it is clear that galvanometer may be made more sensitive by
making deflecting angle 𝜃 large for a certain small value of current i. It may be
achieved by making C/NAB small. A sensitive galvanometer is one which produce
large deflection for small value of current.
• Where C/NAB is a constant. Angular displacement 𝜃 produced being proportional
to current i.
I=𝜃
• The result is read from a scale onto which a light beam is reflected from a mirror M
carried on suspension ribbons. There are two methods of observing angle of
deflection.
Lamp Scale Method
𝑉
= (𝑅𝑔 𝑅ℎ )
𝑖𝑔
𝑉
𝑅ℎ = - 𝑅𝑔 ……………………………….(13.19)
𝑖𝑔
• Measuring voltage the voltage selector switch of AVO meter changes the
circuit to the type.
• This circuit allows selecting any range and the corresponding high
resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer.
• The added high resistance converts galvanometer to a voltmeter of specific
range.
• For example connections at A and C selected by multiple switch
arrangement gives a range of 10-V.
• Similarly, connections at A and B, D, E, or F give the ranges 2.5V, 50V, 250V,
and 1000V respectively
Resistance Measurement
• For resistance measurement the selector switch uses circuit.
• The leads are connected across the resistance to be measured.
• Battery of the meter supplies current to the meter for deflection which in
turn varies with the external resistance and can be calibrated.
• In this case the Ohmmeter battery supplies current to the galvanometer for
deflecting its coil.
Cons…
• Since the amount of current through the galvanometer depends upon the
external resistance, we can calibrate the scale in ohms.
• The amount of deflection on the ohms scale indicates directly magnitude of
resistance.
• Ohmmeter reads up-scale regardless of the polarity of the leads because
polarity of internal battery determines the direction of the current through
galvanometer.
• Commercial AVO meters provide resistance measurement from less than
one ohm up to many mega ohms.
Digital Multi-meters
• Modern multi-meters are often digital due to their accuracy, durability and
extra features.
• In a digital multi-meter the signal under test is converted to a voltage and
an amplifier with electronically controlled gain preconditions the signal.
• A digital multi-meter displays the quantity measured as a number which
eliminates parallax errors.
• Modern digital multi-meters may have an embedded computer which
provides a variety of convenience features.