Disaster Readiness

and Risk Reduction

 Chapter 4
Earthquake Hazards
 Learning Objectives
• To identify various potential earthquake
hazards
• To recognize the natural signs of an
impending tsunami and other earthquake
hazards
• To analyze the effects of the different
earthquake hazards
• To interpret different earthquake hazard
maps
• To apply precautionary and safety measures
before, during, and after an earthquake
 Section 4.1
Ground Shaking
 How Earthquake Vibrations
Are Generated
 The elastic rebound theory suggests that elastic
strain energy builds up in the deforming rocks
on either side of the fault until it overcomes the
resistance posed by any irregularity on the fault
plane.

Reid’s Elastic Rebound Theory

 How Earthquake Vibrations
Are Generated
 When the slippage does occur, energy is released.
The elastic energy released is transported by
seismic waves that travel throughout the earth.
 We feel these seismic waves (Figure 4.12) as
vibrations.

Seismic Wave Radiation

Three Main Types of Seismic Waves

• (1) P (Primary) waves and (2) S (Secondary) waves

are called body waves as these travel in the rocks
below the surface of the earth.

• (3) Surface waves travel outward from the epicenter.

They also travel slower than the other two seismic
wave types.
 Activity 1

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students model

the nature of motion of the seismic waves to
understand the ways by which the ground shakes
during an earthquake.
 How Is Ground Shaking Measured?
ANSWER: The strength of
ground shaking (or that of
the seismic waves) is
measured in terms Of: (1)
velocity, (2) acceleration.
(3) frequency content of
the shaking, and (4) how
long the shaking
continues or the
“duration”.
Maps of Peak Horizontal
Ground Acceleration
 Effects of Ground Shaking
 Ground shaking is potentially destructive to
buildings, particularly the horizontal component of
seismic wave motion or shaking since it is easier to
shake than to compress rocks.

 Ground shaking per se is relatively harmless if one

is in an open field. However, it is the failure of a
building due to inferior design, poor construction,
or weak foundation that cause people harm or
death.
Some of the World’s Most
Destructive Earthquakes
1990 Luzon Earthquake
 Earthquake Source Characteristics
That Control the Intensity of Vibration

• Size of fault rupture

• Magnitude of the earthquake

• Distance from the earthquake epicenter

 Vibration Hazard Zoning
 The intensity of shaking depends not only on
earthquake source characteristics but also on the
characteristics of the materials the ground is made
of.
 It is also important to note that various types of
foundations respond differently to seismic waves
and therefore a more detailed evaluation of the
susceptibility of the ground to shaking is in order.
 Shear wave velocity of different rocks is a good
measure of ground-shaking potential. The use of
velocity in estimating ground-shaking potential is
based on the principle that seismic waves have
different speeds when traveling through different
materials.
 Activity 2
OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students to
identify from knowledge of the types of rock and their
ground shaking relevant characteristics, which areas
are shaken more intensely.

Activity 3
OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students to
analyze how resonance and natural frequency can
damage buildings and bridges and how technology can
be used to avoid this.
 Section Assessment
1. Recount the steps in generating ground vibration in
terms of the elastic rebound theory.
2. Describe the sequence and nature of motion of the
ground vibrations that you might feel during an
earthquake
3. Which type of seismic wave and motion component
would be an engineer‘s foremost concern when
designing an earthquake-resistant building?
4. You are a conscientious project manager of a
planned multi-storey shopping mall. Describe the
steps that you will take to ensure the safety of
shoppers in case of a large magnitude earthquake
that might originate along a nearby earthquake
generator.
 Section 4.2
Ground Rupture
The Concept of Ground Rupture

Earthquakes originate at depth by the sudden

motion of blocks of the lithosphere. This motion
occurs along lithospheric breaks called faults.
During strong earthquakes, faulting may reach the
earth‘s surface as ground ruptures.
 Activity 1

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students model

the nature of motion of the seismic waves to
understand the ways by which the ground shakes
during an earthquake.
Important Terms
 How Ground Ruptures Form

The lithosphere breaks when its strength is

overcome by the large amount of stress applied. This
breaking happens in much the same way a piece of
rock does when struck hard enough with a hammer.
Rock failure that involves the slipping of lithosphere
blocks past each other is called faulting.
 How Ground Ruptures Form
 The lithosphere breaks when its strength is overcome
by the large amount of stress applied. This breaking
happens in much the same way a piece of rock does
when struck hard enough with a hammer. Rock failure
that involves the slipping of lithosphere blocks past
each other is called faulting.
 How Ground Ruptures Form
 An earthquake is generated when a fault moves, as its
frictional resistance could not match the large amount
of accumulated stress related to plate motion. When
an earthquake is strong enough, faulting initiated at
depths may breach the earth‘s surface to form a
ground rupture.
 On Active Faults
 Active faults are those that have been found to have
moved under the current stress field and have
caused earthquakes during historical times and in
the recent geologic past.

 The most active faults are quite dangerous as large

earthquakes originate very often (at short intervals)
along them.

 Active faults show evidence that they have moved in

the recent geologic past.

 Active faults are more likely to give way and

generate earthquakes in the near future.
Current Active Fault Map
of the Philippines
Factors Affecting the Characteristics
of Ground Ruptures
 The depth and nature of sedimentary materials
overlying the bedrock fault may determine the
pattern of surface fault traces.

 Whether a ground rupture occurs along a narrow,

distinct zone or not is also determined by the degree
of activity of the active fault.

 The ground rupture length depends on the

magnitude of the earthquake.

 The width of the deformation along the length of the

ground rupture also largely depends on the type of
faulting.
 Measures to Minimize the Effects
of Ground Ruptures
 Sound engineering and construction practice may be
adopted to prevent total destruction.
 The best measure, however, is avoidance of active fault
traces and deformation zones when planning any
construction.
 Local government units, other government agencies,
business entities, NGOs, and homeowners may access
available detailed maps of local active faults from
PHIVOLCS.
 Some critical parameters such as steepness of the fault
plane and amount of fault displacement during an
earthquake are used in estimating setback and in
determining hazard zones.
 Activity 2

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students learn how

to avoid building structures within a ground rupture
hazard zone.
 Section Assessment
1. How come some places in the world do not have
much earthquake-generating faults? Why is the
Philippines a host to many active faults?
2. What are the reasons why some zones of deformation
are wider than others?
3. What are the differences between ground ruptures
and liquefaction fissures?
4. Which type(s) of faulting is (are) most dangerous to
man-made structures? Explain why.
5. To prevent collapse and interruption of train transport
operations in case of an earthquake, what design
parameters will you include in a proposed elevated
railway that crosses a known active fault. What
information about the active fault do you need to
gather? If you were a geologist with expertise on
active faults, in what ways can you be of help?
 Section 4.3
Liquefaction
 How Does Liquefaction Occur?
Ground shaking during an earthquake, which is
caused by the passing of seismic waves mainly shear
or S-waves, causes loss of equilibrium or disturbance
of the granular structure of the ground. Vibration
rearranges sand particles from a loose arrangement of
grains into more compact state. This results in
increased pore pressure between the grains. Once
pressure exceeds the weight of overlying material,
water is released and causes the sediment grains to
separate as they are pushed apart. The sediments
become more mobile and attain a jelly-like
consistency. From a solid state, the sediments are
transformed into a liquefied state due to increase in
pore-water pressure.
 Three Factors Required
for Liquefaction to Occur
1. Loose, granular sediment — areas with deposits
that are young enough (late Holocene) to be loose
(e.g., old river courses near sea level, coastlines,
marshes, and artificial fills)

2. Saturation of sand and silt sediment by ground

water

3. An earthquake strong enough to liquefy

susceptible sediments
 Activity 1

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students explore

the effects of liquefaction when a damaging earthquake
strikes by building a simple model and to explore
different ways to reduce liquefaction hazards.
Different Types of Ground Failure
Due to Liquefaction
• Flow Failure. Considered
the most dangerous type of
ground failure due to
liquefaction, this occurs on
liquefiable slope material
with steepness greater
than 3 degrees. Blocks of
overlying material slide
down so fast (as much as
10 kms/hr) that these reach
distances tens of
kilometers from the source.
 Different Types of Ground Failure
Due to Liquefaction

• Lateral Spreads. Blocks or

the broken pieces of the at
or very gentle ground (less
than 3 degrees) above a
liquefied zone move
laterally.
Different Types of Ground Failure
Due to Liquefaction
• Ground Oscillation. Due to
the at or nearly at slope,
the ground is unable to
spread and instead
oscillates like a wave (back
and forth and up and
down). Water and wet sand
are ejected through the
fissures that form and
there is build up of conical-
shaped mounds of sand at
the surface (sand blows).
 Different Types of Ground Failure
Due to Liquefaction

• Loss of Bearing Strength.

Loss of strength of sediments
resulting in tilting of houses
and floating of buoyant
structures (e.g., fuel tank)
that are anchored on the
liquefied zone.
 Different Types of Ground Failure
Due to Liquefaction

• Settlement. Vertical readjustment or settlement

within the liquefied zone as a result of dissipation of
pore-water pressure or the ejection of materials
during the formation of sand boils (fountains of water
and sediment coming from the pressurized liquefied
zone).
Effects of Liquefaction on Buildings
and Other Structures
 Areas and Deposits Prone
to Liquefaction
• Seismically-induced liquefaction ordinarily occurs in
areas underlain by layers of loose, well sorted, water-
saturated sand and silty sand within 30 meters of
sediments of considerable thickness where the water
table is close to the surface.
• Soil, sediment, and certain types of volcanic deposits
with well-sorted (almost same-sized) particles having
the size of ne sand are prone to liquefaction.
• Based on analyses of historical data on liquefaction,
the more recent a sediment has been deposited, the
greater is its liquefaction potential.
• Deposits which had been subjected to liquefaction can
liquefy again. Thus, liquefaction hazard zones should
also include areas known to have experienced
liquefaction during historic earthquakes.
 Activity 2

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students identify

which sites or areas are prone to liquefaction from
historical liquefaction damage data, from knowledge of
the geomorphology, and type of sediments.
 Mitigating Liquefaction Hazard
• For national and local governments to come up with
hazard zone maps to identify areas potentially
subject to liquefaction
• Constructing a liquefaction-resistant structure to
ensure that a building has ductility (the ability to
accommodate large deformations) and adjustable
supports to correct against differential settlements of
the soil.
• Improving sites prior to liquefaction events
 Section Assessment
1. What are the requisites for liquefaction to occur?
Why are many areas in the Philippines prone to
liquefaction?
2. Explain how a liquefaction occurs in hilly and
mountainous areas.
3. What are the differences between ground ruptures
and liquefaction fissures?
4. In what ways can liquefaction damage man-made
structures? Which type(s) of liquefaction is most
dangerous to man-made structures? Explain why.
5. As a homeowner, you have relocation or adoption
of engineering measures as options to avoid the
effects of liquefaction. What reason(s) will dictate
your choice?
 Section 4.4
Earthquake-induced Landslides
 Factors That Cause Landslides
• Removal of support at the base of a slope which may
be due to erosion at the toe of a slope by rivers or
ocean waves. That is why landslides may occur even on
a hot summer day.
• Groundwater (pore water) pressure during sudden
changes in the water level of bodies of water adjacent to
a slope also acts to destabilize it.
• Volcanic eruptions. Bulging of slopes and the force of
volcanic material ejection or emission may also
contribute to slope instability.
• Intense rainfall. Landslides are triggered due to the
weakening of the slope material by water saturation.
• Snowmelt is also known to have the same effect as in
saturating slope material.
 Factors That Cause Landslides

• Human interventions. Man contributes to the

instability of slopes through construction activities
(roads, buildings, and other facilities),
quarrying/mining, and unabated logging and kaingin
which lead to the loss of deeply rooting trees and
soil cohesiveness.
• Earthquakes. Slopes are prone to widespread failure
during earthquakes because of the sudden shaking
of hilly and mountainous areas. What a prolonged
period of rainfall cannot do to slopes is
accomplished by a strong earthquake that may last
only less than a minute.
 Activity 1

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students observe

the three phases of landslide development and
simulate the effect to slope stability of shaking,
varying the steepness of a slope, and saturating the
slope material with water.
 Types of Landslide
Based on Movement

• Topples occur suddenly when a massive part of

very steep slopes break loose and rotate forward.

• Rock falls involve chunks of detached rock that fall

freely for some distance or bounce and roll down
the steep slope.

• Slides involve large blocks of bedrock that break

free and slide down along a planar or curved
surface.
 Types of Landslide
Based on Movement
• Lateral spreads are triggered by earthquakes and
affect gentle slopes with less than 10 degrees
inclination. Slope material loses cohesion through
liquefaction caused by the shaking during
earthquakes.

• Flows involve downslope motion of fine grained

clay, silt, and fine sand made mobile by water
saturation. These flows include mud flows and earth
flows and are common during the rainy season.

• Complex slides are combinations of two or more

types of movement.
 Properties of Rocks That
Contribute to Total Resistance
to Shearing Forces

1. Intact rock strength

2. Mass weathering grade
3. Spacing of discontinuities
4. Joint orientations
5. Width of joints
6. Fracture continuity
7. Outflows of groundwater
Areas Prone to Earthquake-induced
Landslides
• Earthquake-induced landslides commonly take
place on longer and steeper slopes, and at a higher
part of the slope.
• The direction that a slope faces (aspect) also plays
a role in where landslides occur during an
earthquake.
• The geological factors that determine which part of
the landscape are prone to landslides are those that
contribute to low strength of rock or soil materials.
• Earthquake induced-landslides occur on surfaces
with signs of weakened slopes due to the presence
of weak, highly-sheared rocks of old fault zones and
old landslide scars.
 Effects of Earthquake-Induced
Landslides
• A substantial part of the total loss of lives, injuries,
and damage to structures due to earthquakes may
be attributed to burial and debris impact caused by
earthquake-induced landslides.
• Ground failure is frequently the cause of major
disruptions, particularly to lifelines, which can lead
to prolonged loss of function and income, even for
undamaged areas.
• Slides can cause disastrous flooding, particularly
when landslide dams across streams are breached
and flooding may trigger more slides.
• Sedimentation due to landslides also changes river
morphology.
 Effects of Earthquake-Induced
Landslides
• Other environmental effects caused by landslides
include the alteration of agriculture and changes to
natural ecosystems.
• One of the major impacts to both the natural and
built environment is the complete relocation of
some human populations and infrastructure to new
areas, resulting in the abandonment of towns and
other areas that were damaged by the earthquake
and landslides.
• The tsunami wave that has ever been known is due
to an earthquake-induced landslide.
 Activity 2

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students identify

areas that may be exposed to the dangers of landslides
during earthquakes from topographic maps, satellite
images, and existing landslide hazard maps.
 Measures to Mitigate
Effects of Landslides
• Recognizing and reporting any sign of slope
instability to local authorities and neighbors in your
community is an important step.
• At the community level, provisions should be made
for food, water, blankets, medicines, and other
supplies needed for possible prolonged isolation
due to destruction of roads by future landslides.
• Communities must also stabilize part of the
landscape with incipient landslide marks before it
develops into a full-blown landslide.
 Section Assessment
1. Explain how ground shaking alters slope condition
that triggers a landslide.
2. What factors determine the type of landslide that
might occur? What are the possible conditions for
a complex type of landslide to develop?
3. Describe how a landslide may cause a destructive
flash flood. Cite local examples of flash floods
caused by landslide.
4. Explain how different keeping safe from
earthquake-induced landslides is from preparing
for rainfall-induced landslides?
Section 4.5
Tsunamis
 Tsunami Generation
Tsunamis can be
generated provided
that:
1. faulting occurs at
the sea bottom (or
extends; in to the
sea, in the case of
active faults
identified on land),
2. the earthquake
originates at shallow
depths; and
3. the earthquake is
sufficiently strong.
 Tsunami Propagation

The speed of propagation of a tsunami is

expressed as

v = (gb)1/2

where b is the depth of the ocean,

and g (= 9.8 m/s2) is the force of gravity.
 Tsunami Run-up and Inundation
 As a tsunami wave gets closer to the shore, it slows
down because of decreasing depth. The decrease
in depth to sea bottom, however, causes wave
shoaling or the abrupt increase in wave height.
 Tsunami Run-up and Inundation
 With wave shoaling at shallower depths, the wave
height increase is inversely proportional to water
depth.

 This wave height-depth relationship is governed by

the following:
 Activity 1

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students calculate

approximate speeds and travel times for sample
tsunamis.
 Causes of Tsunami
• Most tsunamis are generated during an earthquake
occurring along trenches, and along offshore active
faults or the offshore extensions of these.
• Landslide. It includes landslides occurring under the
ocean and coastal landslides displacing ocean water.
Tsunamis can be secondary effects of earthquakes
through earthquake-triggered landslides occurring
under the ocean or in coastal areas.
• Volcanic Eruption or Explosion. Any submarine or
coastal volcanic activity and products that can trigger
tsunami by displacing large volumes of water
including explosions, caldera collapse, large volcanic
debris avalanche, and massive pyroclastic flows.
• Meteorite Impact. Meteorites impacting the ocean can
trigger tsunamis.
 Monitoring and Warning
 The Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC)
monitors the ocean surface using satellites, radar,
and buoys in the water that measure current speed
and waves.

 Once a tsunami is generated, the PTWC alerts local

authorities of areas that are likely to be hit.

 PHIVOLCS has been setting-up tsunami warning

systems that are equipped with sirens in selected
areas prone to tsunami.
 Some Telling Effects of Tsunami
• Massive loss of lives due to drowning, building collapse,
impact of various kinds of debris, and sometimes by
electrocution
• Large tsunami waves can also permanently alter the
landscape, if not totally wipe out small islands and other
coastal landforms.
• Flooding can damage water supplies and soil (both
becoming salinized by sea water affecting crop yields).
• Affect the environment by spreading hazardous
materials and toxic substances that lead to soil and
water contamination
• Destroy plant, animal life, and other natural resources
• Hazardous materials and toxic substances may leak as a
result of damage to containment facilities.
Some Notable Tsunami
Occurrences in History
 Activity 2

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students identify

areas that are unsafe from tsunami by analyzing the
landscape.
 Section Assessment
1. What are the phases of tsunami wave build up? How
are the types of faulting and earthquake magnitude
related to the magnitude of tsunami that may be
triggered by an earthquake?
2. How different are tsunamis from storm surges in terms
of generation, wave characteristics (amplitude,
frequency, and velocity), and duration of inundation?
3. Describe what a tsunami-resistant house may be in
terms of design and construction.
4. If you were vacationing on a tsunami-prone beach,
what preparations do you need to do to escape in the
shortest possible time in case of a local tsunami
triggered by a nearby trench?
5. What extra considerations do you have to bear in mind
when planning to procure a property in a coastal area?