01 Course Introduction

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.
Communications and Services

Certifications
© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-2

CCNA
Cisco Certified Network Associate
© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 3

Network Fundamentals
Network
is all of the components (hardware and software) involved in connecting computers
across small and large distances. { For sharing Information or Devices }
Components
To build a network, you need three types of components:
1- computers.
Provide Applications. ( Host or Server )
2- networking devices.
(Switch, Hub, Bridge, Repeater, Router)
3- Connectivity [ Wired (cables) or Wireless ] .

Network Topology
1. Point-to-Point
2. Bus
3. Star
4. Ring
5. Mesh ( full or partial )
Physical Versus Logical Topologies
Physical topology : How devices are physically wired.
Logical topology : How devices communicate internally with each other.

Types of Data Transmission:
1- Unicast : Unique to one node on a network.
2- Multicast : A group of but not all nodes on a network.
3- Broadcast : all nodes on a network.
The Source is always Unicast .
Modes of Data Transmission:
Half-Duplex : Can transmit or receive data at a time.
Full-Duplex : Can transmit and receive data at a time.

Open System Interconnection ( OSI )
Developed by International Standard Organization (ISO).
Reference Model to describe how information is transferred from one machine to

another.
Benefits of layered model:

1. Divides Complexity of internetworking
into 7-simple steps.
2. Easier to Learn , Design, develop and
troubleshoot.
3. Multi-Vendor Interoperability.

•At Transmitter Data flow from top to down ( Application  Physical )
•At Receiver Data flow from down to top ( Physical  Application )
•Each layer is responsible for a specific process or role.
•Application, presentation, and session layers are typically part of the user’s
application.
•The transport, network, data link, and physical layers are responsible for moving
information back and forth between these higher layers.

L7 : Application Layer
It provides the interface that a person uses to interact with the application.
This interface can be command-line-based ( Command Line Interface )or graphics-

based ( Graphical User Interface ) .
Examples : HTTP , FTP,TFTP, SMTP and telnet.
HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

FTP : File Transfer Protocol
TFTP : Trivial File Transfer Protocol
SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer protocol

L6 : Presentation Layer
Is responsible for defining how information is presented to the user.
This layer defines how various forms of text, graphics, video, and audio information
are presented to the user.
Audio ( WAV and MIDI ) & Video ( AVI, and MPEG )
L5 : session layer
Is responsible for setting up and tearing down network connections.

L4 : Transport Layer
Is responsible for ensuring both reliable and unreliable delivery of data.
Divides raw of data streams into segments and add the sequence number to each
segment.
Examples :
TCP ( Transmission Control Protocol ) { Require ACK , Reliable }
UDP ( User Datagram Protocol ) { Doesn’t require ACK , Non-Reliable }

L3 : Network Layer
Is responsible for end-to-end delivery of packet across a network.
Defines :
A- Logical Addressing : ( IP, IPX, Appletalk )
B- Routing : ( RIP , OSPF , ……. ) { Routing = Finding Best Path }
Logical Address = IP = Address ( May be Changed )
Physical Address = MAC = Name ( Can’t be Changed )

L2 : Data Link Layer
Is responsible for Physical Addressing ( MAC ).
MAC = Media Access Control
L1 : Physical Layer
Is responsible for moving of Bits Between Devices.
Types of Cables , Max Data rate & Max Cable length.



Data Encapsulation :
A type of frame is placed into a different type of frame .
Putting Header & Trailer around Data.
Data Encapsulation occurs at Transmitter & Data De-capsulation ( the reverse

process of encapsulation ) occurs at Reciever.
Protocol Data Unit ( PDU )

It is the name of data at each layer.
PDU : Data  Segment  Packet  Frame  Bits

Layer : 7,6,5 4 3 2 1

Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol ( TCP / IP ) Model

Layer 1 : Physical Layer
Layer 1 Devices:
1- Repeater:
• Repeater Receive Signals and retransmit them at their original strength .

• Regenerate signals in the 2-ways ( 2 port ).
2- Hub:
• It is a multi-port repeater.
• All devices connected on the hub in the same broadcast domain and in the
same collision domain.

Layer 2 : Data Link Layer
MAC Address :
• It is a physical address.
• Each NIC ( Network Interface Card ) has a unique global address which is
burnt on it.
• MAC address consists of 48-bit ( 6 byte ).
• MAC address written in hexadecimal form ( 12 Hexa ).
XXXX.XXXX.XXXX X= ( 09 & AF )
1st 6 Hexa called OUI ( Organizationally Unique Identifier )

Specific per Vendor.
Assigned by IEEE
2nd 6 Hexa called HUI ( Host Unique Identifier ).

Specific per user.
Assigned by Vendor.
• Broadcast MAC = FFFF.FFFF.FFFF .

Layer 2 : Data Link Layer
Layer 2 Devices
A- Bridge :
1- Learning Mode :
Through checking Source Address in the frame header ( Source MAC ).
2- Forwarding Mode :
Through checking Destination Address in the frame header ( Destination MAC ).
All Devices connected on the bridge in the same Broadcast domain.
Each port in a bridge in a separate collision domain.
B- Switch :
It is a multi-port Bridge.

Layer 3 : Network Layer
IP Addressing
If a device want to communicate using TCP/ IP it needs an IP Address.
IP Address consists of 32-bit written in dotted-decimal form.
32-bit = 4 byte = 4 octet
xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
(0255). (0255). (0255). (0255)
IP Address consists of 2 parts ( Network Part followed by Host Part ).

IP Classes:
1- Class A :
1st octet represent network part.
Last 3 octet represent host part.
2- Class B :
1st 2 octet represent network part.
Last 2 octet represent host part.
3- Class C :
1st 3 octet represent network part.
Last octet represent host part.
4- Class D :
Reserved for Multicasting.
5- Class E :
Reserved for Testing & Experimental.
How we can differentiate between Classes:

Only, through checking the 1st octet of the IP Address:
1- Class A :
1st octet range : 0  127 0 : 00000000
127 : 01111111
1st octet range in Binary form : 0xxxxxxx
0 : reserved for all networks ( default route )

127 : reserved for loopback address
Ping 127.x.x.x if reply received  TCP/ IP installed correctly.
Number of networks = 126 = 27 - 2

Number of hosts / network = ( 256 x 256 x 256 ) – 2 = 224 -2
2- Class B :
1st octet range : 128  191 128 : 10000000
191 : 10111111
1st octet range in Binary form : 10xxxxxx
Number of networks = ( 191 - 128 + 1 ) x 256 = 214

Number of hosts / network = ( 256 x 256 ) – 2 = 216 -2
3- Class C :
1st octet range : 192  223 192 : 11000000
223 : 11011111
1st octet range in Binary form : 110xxxxx
Number of networks = ( 223 - 192 + 1 ) x 256 x 256 = 221

Number of hosts / network = ( 256 ) – 2 = 28 -2

4 - Class D :
1st octet range : 224  239 224 : 11100000
239 : 11101111
1st octet range in Binary form : 1110xxxx
Reserved for Multicasting.
5 - Class E :
1st octet range : 240  255 240 : 11110000
255 : 11111111
1st octet range in Binary form : 1111xxxx
Reserved for Testing & Experimentals

Summary
Class 1st octet Range 1st octet Binary form
A 0  127 0xxxxxxx
B 128  191 10xxxxxx
C 192  223 110xxxxx
D 224  239 1110xxxx
E 240  255 1111xxxx
Number of hosts -2
1st IP ( Network IP ) & Last IP ( Broadcast IP )

Rule
Host bits = 0000 ( Zeros )  Network IP Invalid IP
Host bits = 1111 ( Ones )  Broadcast IP Invalid IP
Host bits = 0&1  Host IP Valid IP
Example: Find Valid IP :

1- 0.10.10.10
2- 229.85.132.156
3- 192.168.1.0
4- 172.30.1.0
5- 10.1.1.1

Subnetting
Taking part of Host bits & assign it to Network Part.
Subnet Mask :
32-bit Mask that differentiate between Network part & Host part.
Continuous of 1’s followed by continuous of 0’s .
1 : represent Network bit.
0 : represent Host bit.
Representation of Subnet Mask :

1- Dotted-Decimal Form.
2- Prefix Length ( / Number of network bits )

Example: Default Subnet Mask ( No Subnetting ) :
A- 10.0.0.0
1- 255.0.0.0 2- /8.
B- 172.16.0.0
1- 255.255.0.0 2- /16.
C- 192.168.1.0
1- 255.255.255.0 2- /24.

Example: Find Valid Subnet Mask :

1- 255.255.255.0
2- 224.255.0.0 Subnet Mask Values:
3- 255.255.192.0 255 : 11111111
4- 255.255.128.192 254 : 11111110
5- 0.0.0.255 252 : 11111100
248 : 11111000
240 : 11110000
224 : 11100000
192 : 11000000
128 : 10000000
0 : 00000000

Example: Find Best Subnet Mask for a network has :

1- 10 PCs.
2- 18 PCs.
3- 100 PCs.
4- 459 PCs.
5- 4000 PCs.

Solving Subnetting Problems:

1- Determine Subnet Mask.
2- Determine Interesting Octet. ( Octet that has 111& 000 )
3- Subtract Interesting octet from 256 to get Subnetwork Hop
( Magic Number )
4- Determine the 1st Subnet which is the Major Network.
5- Get Next Subnets by hopping on the Interesting Octet.
6- Find Broadcast IP & Valid IP’s for each Subnet.
192.168.1.0 /24
/26
/27

Example: Find Valid IP Host :

1- 192.168.1.100 /26
2- 192.168.1.160 /27
3- 192.168.1.59 /30
4- 172.31.128.255 /18
5- 172.16.5.0 /23
6- 172.16.210.0 /22
7- 192.168.1.68 /28

Router Function :
1- Packet Switching.
2- Internetwork Communication.
3- Path Selection.
4- Packet Filtering.
Internetwork = Between Networks = Router

Intranetwork = Within Network = Switch

Private IP Addressing :
1- Class A:
10.0.0.0  10.255.255.255
1 Network & 224 – 2 host
2- Class B:
172.16.0.0  172.31.255.255
3- Class C:
192.168.0.0  192.168.255.255

Domain Name System ( DNS )

Resolve Known Name to Unknown IP.
Address Resolution Protocol ( ARP )

Resolve Known IP to Unknown MAC.
Proxy ARP
When I send data to a remote host ( on a different network ):
Packet SRC IP ( My host IP ) & DST IP ( Remote host IP )
Frame SRC MAC (My host MAC) & DST MAC (My Default
Gateway MAC )
Layer 4 : Transport Layer
Transport Layer main function :
Segmenting Application data , Error Recovery & Flow Control.
Connection-Orianted Protocol ( TCP )

•Require pre-established correlation between 2 end points
before data transfer begins.
•TCP uses 3-way handshake to setup connection.
•Reliable
Connectionless Protocol ( UDP )

•Doesn’t require pre-established correlation between 2 end
points before data transfer begins.
•Non-reliable.
Most popular TCP/IP Application :
Application Protocol Port Number
HTTP TCP 80
HTTPS TCP 443
FTP TCP 21
Telnet TCP 23
SMTP TCP 25
DNS TCP & UDP 53
DHCP UDP 67
TFTP UDP 69
SNMP UDP 161

Port Numbers:
• TCP & UDP Port numbers enables the receiving computer to

know which Application to give the data to.
• Source port number ≥ 1024 ( random number )
• Destination port number ≤ 1023 ( Well known port number )
• Well known port numbers used by Servers & Other port
numbers used by Clients.

Port Numbers

Error Recovery :
• TCP provides error recovery through retransmission request

But more bandwidth consuming.
• UDP doesn’t provide error recovery But less bandwidth
consuming.

Flow Control :
• Receiver adjust the transmission speed with the Transmitter.
Windowing :
A source can send X segments before having to wait for an
acknowledgment.

Cables & Connectivity :
1- Straight-through Cable:
Used to connect DTE to DCE.
DTE : Data Terminal Equipment. (PC, Router)
DCE : Data Circuit Equipment. (Switch, Hub)
2- Cross-Over Cable
Used to connect DTE to DTE
or DCE to DCE
3- Roll-Over Cable ( Console Cable )

Used to access CLI ( Command Line Interface ) for
configuration purpose .
Cables

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© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Communications and Services

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-2

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 3

3- Connectivity [ Wired (cables) or Wireless ] .

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-4

Physical Versus Logical Topologies

Physical topology : How devices are physically wired.

Logical topology : How devices communicate internally with each other.

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-5

Types of Data Transmission:

1- Unicast : Unique to one node on a network.

2- Multicast : A group of but not all nodes on a network.

3- Broadcast : all nodes on a network.

The Source is always Unicast .

Modes of Data Transmission:

Half-Duplex : Can transmit or receive data at a time.

Full-Duplex : Can transmit and receive data at a time.

Reference Model to describe how information is transferred from one machine to

Benefits of layered model:

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-7

•At Transmitter Data flow from top to down ( Application  Physical )

•At Receiver Data flow from down to top ( Physical  Application )

•Each layer is responsible for a specific process or role.

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-8

This interface can be command-line-based ( Command Line Interface )or graphics-

Examples : HTTP , FTP,TFTP, SMTP and telnet.

HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-9

Audio ( WAV and MIDI ) & Video ( AVI, and MPEG )

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-10

TCP ( Transmission Control Protocol ) { Require ACK , Reliable }

UDP ( User Datagram Protocol ) { Doesn’t require ACK , Non-Reliable }

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-11

A- Logical Addressing : ( IP, IPX, Appletalk )

B- Routing : ( RIP , OSPF , ……. ) { Routing = Finding Best Path }

Logical Address = IP = Address ( May be Changed )

Physical Address = MAC = Name ( Can’t be Changed )

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-12

L2 : Data Link Layer

Is responsible for Physical Addressing ( MAC ).

MAC = Media Access Control

Is responsible for moving of Bits Between Devices.

Types of Cables , Max Data rate & Max Cable length.

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-13

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-14

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-15

Putting Header & Trailer around Data.

Data Encapsulation occurs at Transmitter & Data De-capsulation ( the reverse

Protocol Data Unit ( PDU )

PDU : Data  Segment  Packet  Frame  Bits

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-16

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-17

• Repeater Receive Signals and retransmit them at their original strength .

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-18

XXXX.XXXX.XXXX X= ( 09 & AF )

1st 6 Hexa called OUI ( Organizationally Unique Identifier )

2nd 6 Hexa called HUI ( Host Unique Identifier ).

• Broadcast MAC = FFFF.FFFF.FFFF .

All Devices connected on the bridge in the same Broadcast domain.

Each port in a bridge in a separate collision domain.

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-20

IP Address consists of 2 parts ( Network Part followed by Host Part ).

© 2002, Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. ICND 2.0—0-21