What Is A ROBOT???: Thursday, December 09, 2021 1

What is a ROBOT???
Thursday, December 09, 2021 copyright© Kaushik Ray 1

Robotics History
1920
The idea of a robot is not new.
For thousands of years man has
been imagining intelligent
mechanized devices that
perform human-like tasks. He
has built automatic toys and
mechanisms and imagined
robots in drawings, books, plays
and science fiction movies.
Thursday, December 09, 20 copyright© Kaushik Ray Week 1

21
Robotics History
What is the definition of a 'robot'?
"A reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to move material,
parts, tools, or specialized devices
through various programmed motions for
the performance of a variety of tasks"
Robot Institute of America, 1979
Where did the word 'robot' come

from?
In fact, the term "robot" was first used in 1920 in a play called
"R.U.R." Or "Rossum's universal robots" by the Czech writer
Karel Capek. The plot was simple: man makes robot then robot
kills man! Many movies that followed continued to show robots as
harmful, menacing machines.
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Thursday, December 09, 2021 copyright© Kaushik Ray k1
Robotics History
More recent movies, however, like the

1977 "star wars", portray robots such
as "C3PO" and "R2D2" as man's
helpers. "Number five" in the movie
"short circuit" and C3PO actually
take on a human appearance. These
robots,
which are made to look.
human are called "androids".
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Robotics History
However, robots of today are not exactly the walking,
talking intelligent machines of of movies, stories and our
dreams. Today, we find most robots working for people
in factories, warehouses, and laboratories. In the future,
robots may show up in other places: our schools, our
homes, even our bodies.
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Robotics History
Today fully functioning androids
are many years away due to the
many problems that must be
solved. However, real, working,
sophisticated robots are in use
today and they are revolutionizing
the workplace. These robots do
not resemble the romantic
android concept of robots. They
are industrial manipulators and
are really computer controlled
"arms and hands".
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Robotics History
Robots have the potential to change our economy, our health,
our standard of living, our knowledge and the world in which we
live. As the technology progresses, we are finding new ways to
use robots.
Each new use

brings new hope
and possibilities,
but also potential
dangers and risks.
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Robotics History
Benefits of Robots
Robots offer specific

benefits to workers,
industries and countries.
If introduced correctly,
industrial robots can
improve the quality of life
by freeing workers from
dirty, boring, dangerous
and heavy labor.
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Robotics History
Robotics for bio-production
Many robots for bio-production have

been developed in the world and it is
predicted that they will be
commercialized in the 21st century,
since some of them were already
commercialized by some companies in
Japan and European countries. A tomato
and cherry tomato harvesting robot, a
cucumber harvesting robot, strawberry
harvesting robots, a multi-operation
robot to work in grapevine yard, and a
chrysanthemum cutting sticking robot.
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Robotics History EMT
HAZBOT III is part of JPL's Emergency Response Robotics
Project, a five-year effort begun in 1991 to apply robotics
technology to the safe handling of hazardous materials. Robots
such as HAZBOT also hold potential for use in mining and law
enforcement. "It's almost standard now to have robots on bomb
squads in major cities, but it took several years for the idea to
catch on," said Richard Welch, task manager of Emergency
Response Robotics at JPL.
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Robotics History
And Future
The Mars 2003 Rover
Project is designed to have
two scientific rovers going
to Mars in 2003. Each
rover will search for
evidence of liquid water
that may have been
present in Mars past. The
rovers will be identical to
each other, but will land at
different regions of Mars.
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Classification of Robotics
• Manual Robotics
• Semi-Autonomous Robotics
• Autonomous Robotics

The Components of Robot
Motor/Locomotion
system
Power Control
Management ROBOT
System
Sensors

Sensors

Sensors
Sensing?
The perception that something has occurred or some

state
exists.
To make a detectable signal (generally electric) from

any
physical quantity.

Sensors
Why do robots need sensors?
Why do you need sense organs??

Sensors
Why do robots need sensors?
Similarly The Robots Need to know about
Internal information
Localization
Obstacles
Tracking

Sensors
Different types of Sensors Ultrasonic Sensor
 Touch Sensors
 Infrared(IR) Sensors
Light Sensors Capacitive Sensor

Sensors
Different types of Sensors Inductive Sensor
Thermal Sensor
Rotation Sensor
Laser Sensor
Light Sensor
Video Camera
Sensors
Touch Sensors
 Simplest sensor.
Uses a crude method of sensing.
electrical flow
force voltage
measurement

Sensors
Infrared Sensors
 Infrared (IR) radiation is part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared
The Visible Spectrum
Ultra Violet
Gamma Rays
x-Rays
 The name means “below red”, red being the color of visible
light of longest wavelength.
 Wave length range- 750 nm and 1 mm.
Sensors
Infrared Temperature Sensors

 Every object (with the exception of a blackbody) emits an
optimum amount of IR energy at a specific point along
the IR band.

Sensors
Infrared Sensors
Transmitter
Transmitter

Sensors
Infrared Sensors
Receiver
Receiver

Sensors
Light Sensors
 Measures the amount of light that it sees.
 It outputs a number between 0 (total darkness) and 100 (very
bright).
 The light sensor uses its own light source, a red Light Emitting
Diode (LED), to illuminate a small area in front of its receiver.
 When the light sensor is over the white paper, it reads a value of
50. When it is over the black paper, it reads a value of 13.

Sensors
Light Sensors
 This consist of a photodiode which allows current through
it exponentially proportional to light absorbed by it

exactly like alight
valve.
energy
voltage
measurement
light energy
voltage
measurement
Thursday, December
electrical flow 09, 2021 copyright© Kaushik Ray 26
Sensors
Light Sensors
LDR’s are light dependent resistance
Two types of LDR circuits -

Sensor Interfacing
VCC VCC
R2 R5 R5
100R R4 R4
10K 100K
2K2 2K2
U3A U3A
3
5 5
IR LED + Digital O/P + Digital O/P
V+
V+
D3 Photo Dio de 2 2
D4 R3 OUT R3 OUT
4 4
- -
V-
V-
LM339 LM339
12
12
0 0
IR Proximity Detector Bump Detector
VCC
VCC
R6
R6
5K
Digital O/P 5K
Digital O/P
8 - Bit ADC
R2
8 - Bit ADC
1k R2
1k
LDR
Thermistor
0
Light Intensity Detector 0
Temperature Detector
copyright© Kaushik Ray 28

Integrated Circuits

Integrated Circuits
 Integrated circuits are used for a variety of devices, including
microprocessors, audio and video equipment, and
automobiles.
 Integrated circuits are often classified by the number of
transistors and other electronic components they
contain:
1) SSI (small-scale integration): Up to 100 electronic components per chip

2) MSI (medium-scale integration): From 100 to 3,000 electronic components
per chip
3) LSI (large-scale integration): From 3,000 to 100,000 electronic components
per chip
4) VLSI (very large-scale integration): From 100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic
components per chip
5) ULSI (ultra large-scale integration): More than 1 million electronic
components per chip
Integrated Circuits
 It is also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip,

or chip.
An integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit that
has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate
of semiconductor material.
 They may contain a few hundreds of electronic
components to a few millions.
 Made up of Capacitors, Inductors, Transistors, Resistors,
etc.

Important IC’s
• 7805 Voltage Regulator
• LM324 Comparator
• LM339 Comparator
• L293D H-Bridge
• L298 H-Bridge
• ULN 2003 Power Drive
• AT89C51 Microcontroller

7805

Comparator
OP AMP implementation of
voltage comparator
In electronics, a comparator
is a device which compares
two voltages or currents and
switches its output to indicate
which is larger. More
generally, the term is also
used to refer to a device that
compares two items of data.

Data Sheets
 Millions of different ICs.

 Each IC has a specific function.
 Data sheet contains the specifications of each IC
For example:
- Pin diagram of the IC showing the various input and
output pins and the power supply pins
- Range of power supply
- Current limitations
- Operating Temperature ranges.
- Graphs describing the various characteristics.

Mechanical System

Mechanical System
The most basic and important part of the robot.
Itcomprises of chassis, motors, wheels and their

placement.
This system decides the locomotion of the robot.

Wheeled Locomotion Systems
 Differential drive
 Car type drive
 Skid steer drive
 Synchronous drive
 Pivot drive

Differential Drive
 This is the most commonly used form of locomotion system

used in robots as it’s the simplest and easiest to implement.
 Ithas free moving wheel(s) in the front accompanied with a

left and right wheel. The two wheels are driven by different
motors.

Differential Drive Cont…

1
Differential Drive: An Analysis
 Simplicityand ease of use makes it the most preferred

system by beginners
 Independent drives makes it difficult for straight line
motion. The differences in motors and frictional profile of
the two wheels cause them to move with slight turning
effect
 The above drawback must be countered with appropriate
feedback system. Suitable for human controlled remote
robots

1
Car Type Drive
It is characterized by a pair of driving wheels

and a separate pair of steering wheels.
The translation and rotation are interlinked,

hence this system faces severe path planning
problem.

Car Type Drive Cont…

1
Skid Steer Drive
 A close relative of the differential drive system.

 It is mostly used in tracked machines e.g. tanks. Also finds
application in some four / six wheeled robots
 The left and right wheels are driven independently.
 Steering is accomplished by actuating each side at a different
rate or in a different direction, causing the wheels or tracks to
slip, or skid, on the ground.

Skid Steer Drive Cont…

Synchronous Drive
 As the name suggests, it uses synchronous rotation of its
wheels to achieve motion & turns
 It is made up of a system of motors. One set of which

drive the wheels and the other set turns the wheels in a
synchronous fashion
 The two sets can be directly mechanically coupled as

they always move in the same direction with same speed

Synchronous Drive Cont…

1
Pivot Drive
 The most unique type of Locomotion system
 It is composed of a four wheeled chassis and a platform that

can be raised or lowered

1
Pivot Drive Cont…
 The wheels are driven by a motor for translation motion
in a straight line
 For rotation one motor is needed to lower/raise the

platform & another to rotate the chassis around the
platform
 This system can guarantee perfect straight line motion

as well as accurate in – place turns to a desired heading

Motors

Motors
Why do we need motors
• Control System
• Control of mechanical parts
• Steering of the Robot
• Controlled movement
• Pull heavy lodes etc..

Types of Motors
DC motors :Extensively used, an all purpose one,
driven by dc power supply
AC motor : not used in robotics, drive by ac power
Stepper motor: extensively used in robotics where

controlled rotation is required
Servo motor: geared dc motor with inbuilt

feedback and error compensation and is used to
drive heavy loads
DC Motor
Operate with dc voltage
Can run in both direction
Speed control

DC Motor Working
1. Direction of motion is controlled by polarity of voltage or

direction of current.
2. Speed is controlled by changing the average power

(energy) fed to the DC motor .

How H-Bridge works
Off Forward Reverse

Speed Control of DC Motor
Speed of a DC motor can be controlled using a method of
PWM (Pulls Width Modulation)
100% Duty Cycle

Pulse-width modulation uses a square wave whose duty cycle is modulated
resulting in the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we consider a
square waveform f(t) with a low value ymin, a high value ymax and a duty cycle D ,
the average value of the waveform is given by:

How H-Bridge Works
• This represents traditional PWM motor control

• Note low average current flow

H-Bridge: Synchronous Rectification
• Use switches instead of diodes

• Much more efficient, regenerative braking

H-Bridge Locked-Antiphase
Pro:one line needed for forward/reverse
Con: higher frequencies needed

Locked Antiphase
Voltage swings from +V to –V
No rectification needed
Current ripple twice as large

H-Bridge Examples
L293, L298, MC33886, TLE5206, TPIC0108b, etc
Simple logic: output = input. Some chips have disables to disconnect all
outputs. Advance chips output protection.
Functional Truth Table

IN1 IN2 OUT1 OUT2 Comments
L L L L Brake; both low transistors on
L H L H Forward
H L H L Reverse
H H H H Brake; both high transistors on.

H-Bridge Examples
LM18200, TLE5205, TPIC0107b, etc.
Functional Truth Table (LM18200)

PWM DIR Brake OUT1 OUT2 Comments
H H L H L Forward
H L L L H Reverse
L X L H H High Side BRAKE
H H H L L Low Side Brake
H L H L L Low Side BRAKE
L X H Z Z None

H-Bridge/Inductor Demonstration
V = IR V = V+
V=0
V = IR
(V = -IR)

Electronic Direction Control
H – Bridge Circuit Diagram

VCC
DC MOTOR
Q1 Q3
NOT GATE NOT GATE
2
2
2 1
A
-
Q2 + Q4
L R
1
1
GND

1
DC motor continued…..
DC motors are high speed and low torque
devices.
Gear is used to decrease the speed and

increase the torque.
They give smooth movement of shaft.
Easy to operate.

DC motor drivers
 Drivers are current amplifier circuits.
A low current control signal is converted

into a proportionally higher current signal
that can drive motor.

Stepper Motor
Widely use in Robotics ---why??
Because More precise than DC motor.
Measured rotation and can be held at a particular position.

Stepper motor continued………

Types of Stepper
Mainly two Types
Unipolar the current only flows in one direction in
the windings of the coils. i.e. the stator poles can
only be polarized one way.

Continued……….
Bipolar
Bipolar motor, the current flows in both
direction in the windings of the coils. i.e. the
stator poles can be polarized both way.

Comparison  Bipolar
•Unipolar
Current flow in both direction

Current flow in one direction
High Torque
Less torque
Not Smooth
Smooth drive

Unipolar Stepper Motor
This kind of motor has four coils .
When energized in the correct sequence cause the

permanent magnet attached to the shaft to rotate.
There are two basic step sequences. After step 4,

the sequence is repeated from step 1 again.
Reversing the order of the steps in a sequence will

reverse the direction of rotation.

a. Single-Coil Excitation - Each successive
coil is energized in turn.

Single coil Excitation

Single coil excitation continued……
0010
0100
0001
1000

b. Two-Coil Excitation - Each successive pair of adjacent
coils is energized in turn.

Double Coil Excitation

Interleaving the two sequences will cause
the motor to half-step

Single and Double coil
Excitation

1000 1100 0100 0110 0010 0011 0001 1001
0100 0011
0010
1001
1000 0110
1100 0100
Comparison
 Double coil
 Single coil
 High torque
•Low torque
 Consume double
•Consume less energy
energy

Circuit Diagram

Connections
Data
Port1 Motor 1
Data
Motor 2
Port2
Note –connect a 15v zener diode to pin 10 of IC as shown to prevent damage

to the IC due to "back emf" when loads such as motors switch on and off .
copyright© IIT Guwahati Robotics Club

Digital Logic

Introduction to Digital Gates and
Logic  Transistor–Transistor
Logic (TTL) is a class of
digital circuits built from
bipolar junction transistors
(BJT), and resistors. It is
called transistor–transistor
logic because both the
logic gating function (e.g.,
AND) and the amplifying
function are performed by
transistors.
 A Motorola 68000-based computer with various TTL chips mounted on

protoboards
Digital Logic Level
 All standardized common TTL
circuits operate with a 5 volt power
supply. A TTL signal is defined as
"low" or L when between 0V and
0.8V with respect to the ground
terminal, and "high" or H when
between 3V and 5V.
Standardization of TTL devices
was so successful that it is routine
for a complex circuit board to
contain chips made by many
manufacturers, based on
availability and cost rather than
interoperability restrictions.

Truth Tables and Boolean Notation
 Circuits with one input
◦ Buffer P = A
A P
A P
0 0
1 1
A P
◦ Not P=A
0 1 A P
1 0
Basic AND / OR
 Circuits with two Inputs
A B P
0 0 0
◦ AND P = A.B 0 1 0 A P
1 0 0 B
1 1 1
A B P
0 0 0 A
◦ OR P=A+B 0 1 1 B
P
1 0 1
1 1 1
Basic NAND / NOR
 Problems with two Inputs
A B P
◦ NAND P = A.B
0 0 1 A P
0 1 1 B
1 0 1
1 1 0
A B P
0 0 1
A
◦ NOR P=A+B 0 1 0 P
1 0 0
B
1 1 0
Basic XOR / XNOR
Circuits with two Inputs:
A B P
0 0 0
◦ XOR P = A  B 0 1 1
1 0 1 A
P
1 1 0 B
A B P
0 0 1 A
P
◦ XNOR P = A  B 0
1
1
0
0
0
B
1 1 1
Simple Line Follower
 Make your own line

follower with Simple
Digital gates and
Comparator

Microcontroller

Microcontroller
Microcontrollers are "special purpose computers".
A microcontroller (or MCU) is a computer-on-a chip.

Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one
specific program.
Any device that measures, stores, controls, calculates, or

displays information is a candidate for putting a
microcontroller inside.
The microcontroller includes a CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O ports,

and timers like a standard computer.

Microcontroller
A microcontroller is an integrated chip that is often part of

an embedded system.
They are designed to execute only a single specific task to

control a single system, they are much smaller and
simplified so that they can include all the functions
required on a single chip.
The program is stored in ROM (read-only memory) and

generally does not change.

Microcontroller
AT89C51

Microprocessor
Similar to a Microcontroller.
Has only a CPU, no memory storage device or I/O ports,

etc.
The CPU executes instructions that perform the basic

logic, math, and data-moving functions of a computer.
 External memory storage device is required.
Thursday, December 09, 2021 copyright© Kaushik Ray Robotics Club

IIT Guwahati 98
Microcontroller and Microprocessor
A microcontroller differs from a microprocessor, which

is a general-purpose chip .
That is used to create a multi-function computer or

device and requires multiple chips to handle various
tasks.
A microcontroller is meant to be more self-contained

and independent, and functions as a tiny, dedicated
computer.

Microcontroller
Uses:
 Microcontrollers have become common in many areas, and
can be found in home appliances, computer equipment,
and instrumentation.
 They are often used in automobiles, and have many
industrial uses as well, and have become a central part of
industrial robotics.
 Because they are usually used to control a single process
and execute simple instructions, microcontrollers do not
require significant processing power.

Uses cont…
 Microcontrollers are hidden inside a surprising

number of products these days.
 If your microwave oven has an LED or LCD screen
and a keypad, it contains a microcontroller.
 All modern automobiles contain at least one
microcontroller. The engine is controlled by a
microcontroller, as are the anti-lock brakes, the cruise
control and so on..

Line Follower
 A line follower is a robot

capable of tracking a line
drawn on a surface
 Optical sensors capture
the line position at the
front end of the robot
 The robot is steered to
keep it always over the
line

1
Optical Reflectors

Rail Track Inspector
LM324 L298
 How to interface
sensors,
Comparator with
microcontroller
AT89C51

Tips for building a robot

Tips for building a robot!
1. Develop the hardware and the software at the same time.
Don't try to build a robot and then write software for it. These two domains feedback on each other. Develop them both concurrently, they are
really just two different pieces of the same problem. You'll save a lot of frustration and headaches if you write the software as you go.
2. Build robust bump sensors and bumper software first.
The robot needs to be able to survive on its bumper behavior alone. All other sensors will eventually depend on the bumper to rescue them from
failure modes. A robust collision detection method should not allow the robot to run into anything without sensing it. And there is great peace of
mind in the knowledge that the robot won't rip itself apart if you are not watching it all the time!
Let the robot run around your living/working space and observe the bumper collision recovery failures. Figure out how to resolve them. A quick
look at the robots which run in the DPRG contests will reveal that very few have ever had to survive an encounter with the back end of a
rocking-chair. Nice flat walls are not the problem.
Find the situations in which the robot's response is not appropriate, where it gets stuck, or scrapes off a sensor, or snags a wire, and see if you
can develop a software- hardware solution which does not require human intervention!
3. Run the robot a lot.
I have a real temptation when I'm working to change a software or hardware feature, put the robot down on the floor for 30 seconds of
evaluation, and then pick it back up for more changes. This is a mistake. These are really "chaotic" systems, greatly dependent on initial
conditions and unobservable real-world parameters.
Let it run a lot, in different conditions and environments, before determining the effectiveness of a certain behavior or modification. Evaluation
should take the lion's share of your development time. It's also the most fun!
4. Document, document, document. Write down what you did, comment your control programs, draw diagrams/schematics/etc and keep them
up-to-date, label wires and connectors (especially ones that carry the power supply). In two weeks, you won't remember what changes you made
to board A that needs to connect to board B that you haven't had time yet to fix. You won't remember which orientation a connector is supposed
to attach. You'll be glad you wrote it down.

5. Use fuses, optical isolators, and/or other forms of protection liberally in your design. A fuse for each power source: battery, DC-DC converter,
charger, etc.
6. Be very methodical in your debugging. Check the simplest things first, even twice if you aren't SURE after the first time. Problems always
seem to come up at the interfaces -- connectors, sockets, serial protocols, etc. Use a voltmeter to check your connections, even AFTER you
physically connect them.
7. Beware of anyone else's pre-canned control code. If you use someone else's stuff, check everything they've done in it against what it should
be. No one is perfect, and the code may not do exactly what you assume it will do.
8. Design your drive motor system to carry twice as much weight as you predict your robot will weigh when finished. The margin will disappear
quickly with "small", seemingly insignificant additions.
9. Use the techniques and knowledge of others to avoid re-inventing the wheel. E.g.: if you need 68HC11 or 8051 code to control hobby servos,
post a request to the club. The same goes for motor control, IR detection, etc.
Caveat: beware of pre-canned control code.
10. If you use an oscilloscope, put Ground pins in easy-to-reach places on your circuit boards.
11. I recommend getting an oscilloscope if you don't have one. It will save you time and money in the long run.
12. Give your robot lots of outputs: LEDs, sound, servos, etc. They're great for diagnostic output as well as entertainment.
13. Start with something simple, then add to it. Don't try to build a complex robot without first making sure you can build a simple one that works.
Then take baby steps, adding functionality to the simple one. (By the way, "subsumption" is a good control software model to use for this... I
believe David took this approach, too. Start with bumper switches, then add infrared, sonar, imaging, etc.)

14. Unless you have lots of time and money, build your robot modular. If the motor controller is one module, power management another, speech
another, etc, it's easier to troubleshoot if you have a standalone module. It also makes it much easier to transfer your technology to your next robot.
15. Don't overlook thrift stores, swap meets, and garage sales as good sources for parts. Many times technology only a few years old will show up
at a swap meet for $.05 on the dollar.
16. Develop a system of construction and stick to it. Black wires will always be ground, red wires will always be VCC, white wires will always be
motor supply, etc. If you get in the habit of grabbing what ever color wire is handy to build your bot, troubleshooting will be much more difficult.
It also makes documentation much easier.
17. Don't be afraid to experiment. That's what fuses are for!
18. Add to your parts bin when the opportunity arises. Unless you live next to the ultimate Robot Parts Store, or plan to special order every gear
you need, pick them up when you see them -- taking storage space and spousal tolerances into account, of course!
19. Give your Robot a name. Make it personal.
20. Get datasheets for what you don't understand. Read them, digest them, absorb them. Then go back and read them again until you can explain
them to someone else.
21. Share with others what you are doing. Think out loud. Often times in the process of answering questions about your plans, you'll be forced to
further define things and polish some of the rough spots.
22. Be proud of what you build. Some people talk, some people build. If you have to pick just one, then build. But doing both is preferred.

References:
Robotics
http://www.electronicsteacher.com/
http://schoolscience.rice.edu/duker/robots/robotwhatis.html
Sensors
http://www.sensorland.com/HowPage022.html
http://www.answers.com/Infrared%20Sensors
http://www.barello.net/ARC/projects/LEGO/
http://www.sensorland.com/HowPage022.html
Light Sensors
http://www-education.rec.ri.cmu.edu/roboticscurriculum/lightsensor.htm
http://www-education.rec.ri.cmu.edu/multimedia/rcx.shtml
http://www-education.rec.ri.cmu.edu/multimedia/rotationsensore.shtml
http://www.doctronics.co.uk/ldr_sensors.html

Datasheets
http://www.datasheetcatalog.com/
Microcontroller
http://www.mrrobot.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller
http://www.answers.com/topic/microcontroller
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/microprocessor.htm
http://www.knightlight.co.uk/info-microprocessor-information.asp
http://lucy.vub.ac.be/links.htm
http://www.ti.com

THANK YOU

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What Is A ROBOT???: Thursday, December 09, 2021 1

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What is a ROBOT???

Thursday, December 09, 2021 copyright© Kaushik Ray 1

Thursday, December 09, 20 copyright© Kaushik Ray Week 1

Where did the word 'robot' come

More recent movies, however, like the

Each new use

Robots offer specific

Many robots for bio-production have

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The perception that something has occurred or some

To make a detectable signal (generally electric) from

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Why do you need sense organs??

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Similarly The Robots Need to know about

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Different types of Sensors Ultrasonic Sensor

Light Sensors Capacitive Sensor

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Infrared Temperature Sensors

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it exponentially proportional to light absorbed by it

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1) SSI (small-scale integration): Up to 100 electronic components per chip

 It is also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip,

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 Millions of different ICs.

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Itcomprises of chassis, motors, wheels and their

This system decides the locomotion of the robot.

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 This is the most commonly used form of locomotion system

 Ithas free moving wheel(s) in the front accompanied with a

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 Simplicityand ease of use makes it the most preferred

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It is characterized by a pair of driving wheels

The translation and rotation are interlinked,

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 A close relative of the differential drive system.

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 It is made up of a system of motors. One set of which

 The two sets can be directly mechanically coupled as

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 The most unique type of Locomotion system