CONSTRUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF

BASIC AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES 2

 The structure of an aircraft must be strong enough to carry all the
loads to which it might be subjected, including the repeated small to
medium loads experienced in normal flight and big loads
experienced during extreme conditions.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
 Primary structure (Class I)
 Secondary structure (Class II)
 Tertiary structure (Class III)
PRIMARY STRUCTURE

Includes all portions of aircraft if failure of which in flight or on the

ground, would be likely to cause

• Catastrophic structural collapse

• Inability to operate a service
• Injury to occupants
• Loss of control
• Unintentional operation of a service
• Power unit failure
EXAMPLES OF SOME TYPES OF PRIMARY
STRUCTURE 4

 Engine Mountings

 Fuselage Frames

 Main Floor
members

 Main Spars
 SECONDARY STRUCTURE 5

Includes all portions of the aircraft which would

normally be regarded as primary structure, but
which unavoidably have such a reserve of
strength over design requirements that
significantly weakening may be permitted,
without risk of failure. Includes structure which, if
damaged, would not impair the safety of the
aircraft.

• Ribs and parts of skin in the stabilizers.

• Skin and stringers in the fuselage
 6
TERTIARY STRUCTURE

Includes all portions of the structure in which the stresses are low, for
various reasons, cannot be omitted from the aircraft. Typical
examples include fairings, fillets and brackets which support items in
the fuselage and adjacent areas.
 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 7

Although almost all aircraft sheet metal

components transmit some force, the
primary consideration in aircraft design is
placed upon the structural components.
There are three different types.

Fail Safe Design

Safe Life Design
• Damage Tolerant Concept
 FAIL SAFE
8

A fail safe structure is one which retains, after

initiation of a fracture or crack, sufficient strength
for the operation of the aircraft with an
acceptable standard of safety, until such failure is
detected on a normal scheduled inspection.
 FAIL SAFE DESIGN
9

 The structure is so designed, that after

failure of one part, the remainder is
sufficient in strength to prevent
catastrophic collapse until the damaged
part is found by routine inspection.
 SAFE LIFE DESIGN
10

 Originally the recognized theory of structural

design.
 When deciding its duration, the effects of wear,
fatigue and corrosion must be considered
 Safe life structure and components are granted a
period of time during which it is considered, that
failure is extremely unlikely
 If tests show that fatigue will cause a failure in
12,000 flying hours, then one fourth of this might
be quoted as the safe life.
 DAMAGE TOLERENCE
11

Damage tolerant is intended to ensure that

should a serious fatigue, corrosion, or
accidental damage occur within the
operational life of the aeroplane the
remaining structure could withstand
reasonable loads without failure or excessive
structural deformation until the damage is
detected.
 DAMAGE TOLERANCE CONCEPT
12

Design feature which should be considered in

attaining a damage tolerant structure, includes the
following.

 Multiple load path construction.

 Use of crack stoppers to control the rate of crack
growth.
 Providing adequate residual static strength.
 The use of specially developed material which
less prone to fatigue.
 13
SINGLE PIN ATTACHMENT
MULTIPLE PIN ATTACHMENT 14
Two types of aircraft fuselage
construction
 In order to absorb these tremendous loads imposed upon the
structure, the fuselage must have maximum strength, but this must
be combined with the other constraint, that of minimum weight

 There are two types of construction found in the majority of modern

aircraft fuselage design,

 The truss type

 The stressed skin type
 TRUSS FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION
16

 By definition, a truss is a form of construction in which a number

of members (or struts), are joined to form a rigid structure

 Normally covered with non-load carrying material such as

cloth, fabric or thin sheets of wood.

 Very early aircraft used a method of construction referred to as

a Pratt Truss, where struts were held in compression, and wires,
which ran diagonally between the struts, were in tension.
 STRESSED SKIN STRUCTURE
17

 The necessity of having to build a non-load-

carrying covering over a structural truss led to
designers to develop the stressed skin form of
construction.

 The commonest form of a stressed skin structure is

a chicken egg (pure monocoque)

 In this method, a proportion of the load is carried

by the outside skin, which can be also be formed
into a much smoother and more efficient shape
 LONGERONS 18

 Longerons are the lengthwise structural members of a

stressed skin fuselage, which takes up the primary
bending loads

 Longerons are considered to be different from

stringers in that they are continuous uninterrupted
members while stringers are usually splice joint at the
frame.

 Longerons are however longer members than

stringers

 Longerons serve as the major bending load carrying

member while the stringers serve as fill-ins between
the longerons to stiffen the skin
19
 FLAP CONSTRUCTION
20

 Conventional design with Aluminium alloy sheet construction.

 Lower surface panels are attached with screws and nut plates for
access and inspection. The leading edge and the upper surface
panels are permanently attached.

 The straight tracks guide the flap carriages while the curved tracks
guide the vanes.
TYPE OF FLAPS 21
airframe
 PASCAL'S LAW OF FLUID
COMPRESSIBILITY 23
 “Pressure in an enclosed container is transmitted equally to all
parts of the container and acts at right angles to the enclosing
walls.”

Container (a) Container (b)

 PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL HYDRAULIC FLUID
24
 Have a very low viscosity rate.

 Be free flowing over a wide temperature range.

 Must inhibit corrosion and not chemically attack to the seals used in
the system.

 Must not foam during operation when subject to sudden pressure

increases or decreases.
 Have good lubrication properties.
25
 Have a high flash point.

 Must not deteriorate or form sludge

Can only used recommended by the manufacturer of the hydraulic

components (specified in the Maintenance Manual).
 ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPRESSED 26
AIR

 Air is universally available and in unlimited supplies.

 Pneumatic system components are reasonably simple and

lightweight.

 No return lines are fitted resulting in a weight saving.

 There is no fire hazard.

 Contamination is minimised by the use of filters.

 27
Pumps

Hand Pump Powered Pump

Single Double Variable Constant

displaceme displaceme
action action
nt pumps nt pumps
Pump Pump

Vane Piston Gerotor Gear

Pumps Pumps Pumps Pumps
Gear Pump

• The function of the Gear pump is to move fluid through the system
and it is doing by converting the mechanical force to hydraulic
pressure
• Used in medium pressure Hydraulic systems
• It is relatively inexpensive to manufacture
 Single action Pump 29
 The single-action pump provides flow during
every other stroke, while the double-action
provides flow during each stroke. Single-action
pumps are frequently used in hydraulic jacks.
Gerotor Pump

• The generator pumps is combination with internal-External gear pump

• When the gears continues to rotate the cavity formed and create the
pressure
Piston Pump
31
Cont’piston

1. High pressure hydraulic system is

using this kind of pumps
2. Often used angle piston to this
system
 ACCUMULATORS 33

PURPOSE OF THE ACCUMULATORS

 To absorb fluctuations in pressure.
 To ensure immediate response and delivery of pressurised
fluid on demand.

Hydraulic fluid is non-compressible, and pressure can only

be stored with compressible fluids. The compressibility effect
can be gained by the using an accumulator.
 CONSTRUCTION
34
 Accumulators are constructed from high-strength materials such as
cast, or machined, Aluminium alloys, or stainless steels.

 Consist of a container divided into two compartments by some form

of movable, sealing partition.

There are three types

 Piston type

 Bladder type

 Diaphragm type
 BLADDER & DIAPHRAGM TYPE 35
ACCUMULATORS
 These accumulators are spherical in shape, usually made of cast, or
moulded aluminium, sometimes steel wire-wrapped.
 Both form two compartments as in the “piston” type.

OPERATION

 The operation is similar the “piston” type in that, the lower

compartment is charged with dry-air, or nitrogen to a specified
pressure, (usually between: 1,200 / 1,500psi).

It provide In-compressible fluid via the medium of a compressible gas,

transferred through a flexible bladder, or diaphragm.
36
 ACCUMULATORS 37

Piston Type Bladder Type Diaphragm Type

SYMPLE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
38
 Air Supply sources
40
 Engine Bleed Air.

 Compressors or Blowers.

 Auxillary Power Unit (APU).

 Ground Supply
Engine Bleed Air
41
This is used in turbo jet aircraft in which hot air is
bleed of from the engine compressors to the
cabin.

Before the air enters the cabin it is passed

through a pressure and temperature control
system.

Two tappings are taken from the engine, one

form the LP stages and one form the HP stages
to maintain a reasonable pressure band at all
engine speeds.
42
Typical (Compression) Bleed Air
43
System
Air Compressors or Blowers
 This method is used on turbo-prop, piston engine or even 44
turbo-jet aircraft where main engine compressor bleed is
unavailable or unsuitable.
 compressor or blower will be mechanically driven from the
accessory gearbox of the main engine.

Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)

 The APU is a small gas turbine engine.
 It provide an independent means of air conditioning and
pressurisation.
 On the ground or in flight, when the main engines cannot
supply.
Ram Air
This method is normally found as the primary 45
ventilation system on un-pressurised aircraft.
Since the air at altitude will be cold, the
temperature control system through which it
passes before entering the cabin.
A self-contained combustion type heater will be
employed, or the some form of exhaust gas
heater.
The air conditioning ducting will be routed around
the combustion heater casing or around engine
exhaust duct .
On pressurised aircraft, a ram air system can be
used as a means of emergency ventilation.
46
Ground Cart
47

 Thiswill be an independent means of

heating or cooling the passenger cabin on
the ground.
 It
can be used on aircraft that do not have
an APU.
 The trolley will be connected externally to
the aircraft, via a purpose built inlet into the
air conditioning or a heating.
 LANDING GEAR SYSTEM 48
Introduction

 Landing gears have two main functions

1. Withstand the weight of the stationary aircraft on the ground,

2. Absorbing the loads during touchdown, landing and taxiing
run.

 It divided into two main categories

 Fixed (non-retractable)
 Fully retractable.

Early landing gear designs consisted of two main legs set a small
tail wheel at the rear end of the fuselage. Putting the C of G just
aft of the main gear.
 MULTIPLE AXLES AND WHEELS
ARRANGEMENTS 49
 To allow for maximum utilisation of aircraft when
operating from different runways multi wheel
landing gear is used.

SINGLE DOUBLE

TANDEM

BOGIE
 THE ADVANTAGES OF USING MULTI-WHEEL
CONFIGURATIONS 50

 It spread the landing loads over a larger area.

 It are easier to stow as the wheel volume is reduced.
 It provide greater safety the loads are spread over several wheels.

THE MAIN DISADVANTAGES

 It have more moving parts so they need more
maintenance.
 It is expensive to produce.
 Due to the large footprint the turning circle is increased.
 RETRACTION SYSTEM
 The retraction procedure is basically the opposite of the extension 51
procedure.

 The selector lever is selected GEAR UP a micro-switch on the lever is

made which powers up the hydraulic pump.

 Its is also fed to the selector valve and opens the uplines to the main
actuators and the return lines to the reservoir.

 The fluid pressure flows through the selector valve to the main
actuators and retracts the landing gear.

 When the undercarriage legs on full retraction mechanically lock the

uplocks.
 UNLOCKED UPLOCK
52
LOCK LEVER ASSEMBLY

LIMIT SWITCH

PLUNGER
UNLOCK ACTUATOR VALVE

UPLOCK HOOK

LANDING GEAR LEG ROLLER

 LOCKED UPLOCK
53
LOCK LEVER ASSEMBLY LIMIT SWITCH

UNLOCK ACTUATOR VALVE

LANDING GEAR LEG ROLLER

UPLOCK HOOK
Cont’ cross feed
 The fuel system in aircraft generally includes a left and
right tank within the corresponding wings. Each tank
generally provides fuel to the engines on that wing. The
crossfeed valve is used to temporarily connect the two
sides of the system.

 To keep the plane balanced, both wing tanks should

have about the same amount of fuel. However, for
various reasons, they could become unbalanced. The
crossfeed valve allows fuel to flow from the tank with too
much fuel to the tank with less fuel.
 FUEL DUMPING (JETTISON)
56
 Fuel jettison systems are fitted to a number of large commercial
aircraft.
 Fuel jettison systems are often fitted after the installation of a centre
tank, because of the extra fuel weight.
 The jettison pipe is branched off the feed pipe between the inner
tank fuel pump and the inner tank shut off valve.
 Jettison pipe is normally at the end of the flap track fairing and fitted
with an anti corona device to avoid vaporisation of the fuel. A
normal transfer rate will be in the region of 300-350 litres per minute. 57
 Fuel Dump During Flight.wmv
 NACA VALVE
 Each vent tank is vented to atmosphere via the NACA valve
 This valve ensures tank pressurisation during flight and allows the fuel
to flow out in the event of a high level cut-off failure during
refuelling.
 A flame arrester is also fitted in the NACA intake in case of ground
fires.
 CROSS-FEED AND TRANSFER
 Cross-feed Valves permit the transfer of fuel from any tank to any 59
engine, whereas Transfer Valves enable fuel to be transferred from tank
to tank.

 Aircraft has a wing with lateral dihedral the fuel pumps will normally be
inboard and the fuel flow towards the wing root.
airplane-wing-forms-configuration2.gif
imagehk0.jpg
 The outboard tank will automatically transfer into the inboard tank and
so be the first to empty.

 Since the inboard tanks will be feeding the engines, a transfer valve
between the inboard and outboard tanks will be opened
automatically.
 INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS
 Provision is made to display fuel tank quantity, boost pump low 60
pressure, cross feed valve and fuel/fire shut off valve position.
 Generally the display pannel will be similar to the examples shown
below.

Overhead panel - Push switch type Overhead panel - Toggle switch type
 PRINCIPLE OF CAPACITANCE GAUGING
61
 A capacitor is an electrical device which stores electrical charge.
 It can hold depends upon three physical properties of the capacitor
itself.
 The surface area of the plates.
 The size of the gap between the plates.
 The insulating material (dielectric) between the plates.
In a fuel tank “capacitor stack” two of the above are fixed, ie. the area of the
plates and the gap between them.
The only variable is the dielectric which, in a fuel tank, is either fuel or air or both.
 As the fuel level falls, the dielectric will gradually change to air and the
amount of charge stored will reduce.
62
 FIRE ZONES in aircraft
 Fire is the most dangerous threat to the safety of an
aircraft and is associated with external areas near the
main engines and the APU.

 Other external hot spots

 landing gear bays, where heat from brake units could affect the
surrounding equipment and wiring, when the gears are retracted.

 Overheating of the structure, equipment and wiring from very hot air,

 leaking engine compressor bleed air pipes

 Fire from internal areas such as the passenger, flight deck and toilet
compartments as well as cargo, air-conditioning and
electrical/electronic equipment bays require protection too.
FIRE ZONES 64
 On light aircraft, the only protection against fire is
a stainless steel or titanium bulkhead (firewall),
dividing the engine bay from the cabin and the
rest of the aircraft.

 Larger aircraft have the complete engine

cowlings isolated from the airframe/wing
assemblies and, in addition, aircraft cowlings can
be divided into a number of 'fire zones', each one
usually having its own warning and extinguishing
system.
 HOT AND COOL ZONES 65
 Engines are usually split into hot and cool zones.
 The hot zone comprises the combustion chamber turbines and
exhaust areas.
 The cool zone comprises the intake, compressors and accessory
drives.
66
FIREPROOF BULKHEADS
67
 These prevent fire from spreading to other areas.

 Auxiliary power units and tail mounted engines

are normally contained within such bulkhead
compartments separating them from the rest of
the airframe.

 The engine pylons also contain a firewall to

separate the engine from the wing.

 These are made from titanium or stainless steel

and all joints are sealed with fireproof sealants.
ENGINE FIRE PREVENTION
68

 There are a number of techniques used to help prevent a

fire occurring around engines, these are.
 Use of flameproof or flame resistant materials, use of
bonding strips to prevent arcing, drainage of spilt fuel/oil
and efficient cooling.
 All pipes which carry fuel, oil or hydraulic fluids are made
fire resistant and all electrical components and
connections are made flame proof.
 It is essential that a fire starting in any zone is contained
within that zone and is not allowed to spread to any other
part of the .
PNEUMATIC RAIN REMOVAL SYSTEMS
 One is that at speed the aerodynamic forces 69
tend to reduce the blade pressure on the screen
and cause ineffective wiping.
 The other problem is to achieve blade oscillation
rates that are high enough to clear the screen
during heavy rain.
• Pneumatic rain clearance systems
overcome these problems by using
high pressure bleed air from the
gas turbine engine and blowing it
over the face of the windscreen
from ducts mounted at the base of
the screen.
• The air blast forms a barrier that
prevents the rain spots from striking
the screen. Pneumatic Rain Removal
System
RAIN REPELLANT
 When water is poured onto clear glass it spreads evenly to form a thin film.
70
 When the glass is tilted at an angle and subjected to an air stream, the glass
will remain wetted and reduce vision.
 When the glass is treated with certain chemicals (typically silicone based),
the water film will break up and form beads of water, leaving the glass dry
between the beads.
 The chemical is stored in pressurised, disposable cans and is discharged on to
the windscreen through propelling nozzles.
 There are four primary systems used for ice protection.
Fluid

71
 Pneumatic
 Thermal
 Electrical

FLUID SYSTEMS
 These may be used either as an anti-icing or de-icing system.
 System it works on the principle that the freezing point of water can be
lowered if a fluid of low freezing point is applied to the areas to be protected
before icing occurs.
 The fluid is applied to the interface of the aircraft surface and the ice.
 The adhesion of the ice is broken and the ice is carried away by the airflow.
 System is normally used on windscreens and aerofoils and has also
been used successfully on propellers.
72
WINDSCREEN PROTECTION
 The method employed in this system is to spray the windscreen panel
with an ALCOHOL based fluid.
 The principal components of the system are.
 Fluid storage tank
 Hand operated or electrically driven pump
 Supply pipelines
 Spray tubes.
 73

WINDSCREEN AUXILIARY DE-ICING TYPICAL FLUID DE-ICING SYSTEM

SYSTEM
AEROFOIL SYSTEMS
 The fluids used for aerofoil ice protection are all GLYCOL based and
have properties of low freezing point, non-corrosive, low toxicity and 74
low volatility.
 Fluid is supplied to the pump by gravity feed from the tank and is then
directed under pressure to the distributors on the aerofoil leading
edges.

Fluid De-icing System with Distribution Panels

PROPELLER SYSTEMS
 It is necessary to de-ice the propeller blade root and a section of the 75
propeller blade.
 Uneven ice build up will also introduce imbalance of the propeller
and cause vibration.
 The blade root has a rubber cuff into which the de-icing fluid is fed by
a pipeline from a slinger ring on the spinner back plate.
 From the cuff the fluid is spread along the leading edge of the blade
by centrifugal force.
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
 Pneumatic (or mechanical) systems are used for de-icing only, It is not 76
possible to prevent ice formation .
 The de-icer boots (or overshoes) consist of layers of natural rubber and
rubberised fabric between which are disposed flat inflatable tubes closed at
the ends.
 The tubes may be laid spanwise, chordwise or a combination of each
method.
OPERATION
 When the system is switched on, pressure is admitted to 77
the boot sections to inflate groups of tubes in sequence.
 The inflator weakens the bond between ice and the boot
surfaces and cracks the ice that is carried away by the
airflow.
 The inflation and deflation cycle is repeated whilst the
system is switched on.
 When the system is switched off, vacuum is supplied
continually to all tubes of the overshoes to hold the tubes
flat against the leading edges thus minimising
aerodynamic drag.
THERMAL (HOT AIR) SYSTEM
 The thermal (hot air) system fitted to aerofoils for the purpose of preventing
the formation of ice. 78
 Heated air distributed between double thickness skins.

 In anti-icing systems a continuous supply of heated air is fed to the leading

edges, but in de-icing systems it is usual to supply more intensely heated air
for shorter periods on a cyclic basis.
ELECTRICAL ICE PROTECTION SYSTEN

79
Heater mat
 This type of element consists of two thin layers of rubber or sandwiching a
heater element. Each mat is moulded to the section to be protected.
 Construction and materials according to their purpose and environment.

Electrical Anti-Icing Heater

 EFFECTS ON AIRCRAFT
The build up of ice on the aircraft is known as 'ice accretion' and,
from the foregoing, it is evident that if ice continues to be deposited 80
on the aircraft one, or more, of the following effects may occur.
 Decrease in Lift
This may occur due to changes in wing section resulting in loss of
streamlined flow around the leading edge and top surfaces.
 Increase in Drag
Drag will increase due to the rough surface, especially if the formation
is rime. This condition results in greatly increased surface friction
 Increased Weight and Wing Loading
The weight of the ice may prevent the aircraft from maintaining height.
81
 Decrease in Thrust
With turbo-prop and piston engines, the efficiency of the propeller will
decrease due to alteration of the blade profile and increased blade
thickness. Vibration may also occur due to uneven distribution of ice
along the blades.
 Gas Turbine engines may also be affected by ice on the engine
intake, causing disturbance of the airflow to the compressor.
Furthermore, ice breaking away from the intake, may be ingested by
the engine causing severe damage to the compressor blades and
other regions within the engine.
 Inaccuracy of Pitot Static Instruments
Ice on the pitot static pressure head causes blockage in the sensing
lines and produces false readings on the instruments.
 Loss of Inherent Stability
This may occur due to displacement of the centre of gravity
caused by the weight of the ice. 82
 Radio antennae
Reduced efficiency
 Loss of Control
Loss of control may occur due to ice preventing movement of
control surfaces
extra
ADVANTAGES OF FBOW OVER FBW
84
 Increased amount of information can be passed
 Increased speed of transmission
 Lighter in weight

BENEFITS OF THE FLY-BY-WIRE SYSTEM TO FLIGHT CONTROLS

 A more efficient structure design
 Increased fuel economy
 A smaller vertical fin
 A smaller horizontal stabiliser
 Reduced weight
 Improved controls and protections.
 LIGHT SYSTEM
85
 Lighting is important in the safe operation of aircraft and aircraft
systems.

EXTERNAL LIGHTING
 Navigation Lights to mark the extremities of an aircraft and give
position reference.
 Flashing lights to mark the position of an aircraft.
 Landing and taxiing lights for forward and lateral illumination.
 Lights to illuminate wings for ice inspection.
 Illumination to assist in the evacuation of passengers and crew in the
event of an emergency landing.
INTERNAL LIGHTING
86
 Lights to illuminate consoles/control panels.
 Lights for passenger compartments and information signs.
 Warning lights to indicate system-operating condition.
 Emergency lighting.
110° 87
140°

140°
110°
Runway Turn-Off And Taxi Lights
 Runway turn-off lights in each wing root inboard of the inboard
landing lights. 88
 Aimed ahead and to the side of the aircraft to illuminate taxiway
turnoffs.
 A nose gear taxi light is mounted on the inner cylinder of the nose
gear shock.

ANTI-COLLISION LIGHTS
 Anti-Collision Lights are intended as ‘attention-getters’ to warn of the
presence of an aircraft and identify its position.
 Mounted on the top and bottom of the fuselage, aft of the wing
leading edge.
 WATER/WASTE SYSTEM
WATER SYSTEMS
89
 On aircraft it is used not only to supply water for drinking, but also the galleys
and to provide hot and cold water to wash basins throughout the aircraft.
 Centralised water tank can feed any number of galleys and toilets through a
gallery of pipes.
 The major components in a potable water system are.

• A storage tank.
• Air pressure system to force water
from the storage tank to the services.
• Distribution lines
• Filling system
• Quantity indication system
• Valves to drain the system
WASTE SYSTEMS
90
 The provision of aircraft toilets is an essential requirement for any
aircraft carrying passengers over long distances.
 Three are three types of toilet.

 Removable toilet assembly.

 Liquid flush type.

 Vacuum toilet assembly

CABIN ENTERTAINMENT
 Cabin entertainment varies greatly depending upon the aircraft type.
91
 Modern aircraft have, fitted to their higher class seats, a complete
'entertainment experience‘
 In business class, access to a satellite telephone and other business tools.
Past papers
 LANDING GEAR RETRACTION SYSTEM
 The retraction procedure is basically the opposite of the extension 93
procedure.

 The selector lever is selected GEAR UP a micro-switch on the lever is

made which powers up the hydraulic pump.

 Its is also fed to the selector valve and opens the uplines to the main
actuators and the return lines to the reservoir.

 The fluid pressure flows through the selector valve to the main
actuators and retracts the landing gear.

 When the undercarriage legs on full retraction mechanically lock the

uplocks.
 HYDRAULIC TERMS
94
 Area Area is measurement of a surface, Area
of a piston head it measured by m2

Force is amount of push, pull or twist on an

 Force
object, determine by Force per unit area (psi
or kPa)
It represent the distance a piston moves in
 Stroke
a cylinder.

The amount of fluid contained or displaced

 Volume by a pump or actuating cylinder

Is any substance that is liquid or gaseous in

 Fluid form
Relationship between Force, Area,
Pressure. 95

A P
GEAR POSITION INDICATOR
96
RED TRANSIT
A RED LIGHT COMES ON
GREEN
LOCKED
DOWN 1. The lever is not down and
gear not up.

2. The lever is down and gear

not down and locked.

3. Engine no. 1 or 2 throttle is

in idle range and any gear not
down and locked.
A GREEN LIGHT COMES ON
 The gear is down and locked. 97
 On other aircraft, the red transit lights are replaced by the ‘nips’ light
on the selector lever.
 Separate amber warning lights on the front panel will show a fault.
GENERAL SEQUENCE OF FILLING AND CHARGE A
TYPICAL OLEO-PNEUMATIC WITHOUT SEPARATOR TYPE OF
98
STRUT
 Normally the aircraft will be positioned on jacks with the wheels clear
of the ground.
 Using an approved adapter, completely release the nitrogen pressure
via the charging valve and ensure the valve remains open after all
pressure has been dissipated.
 Place a bottle jack under the strut and carefully compress the leg,
pushing the inner piston into the outer cylinder until it bottoms and the
leg is fully compressed.
 Close and tighten the oil charging valve and oil bleed valve.
 Remove the bottle jack, connect a nitrogen rig to the nitrogen
charging valve. Slowly and carefully inflate the leg with nitrogen until
the leg is fully extended and the inflation adapter gauge shows the
correct gas pressure obtained from the AMM.
 99

 Close and tighten the nitrogen charging valve and remove the
charging rig.
 Repeat if required on the other main leg.
 Lower the aircraft off jacks.
 The legs are now properly filled and charged.
Refuelling
REFUELLING AND DE-FUELLING 100
 Any liquid flows through a pipeline, it will produce Static Electricity.
 If this static electricity were allowed to discharge in the presence of
aviation fuel vapour.
 Therefore it need to minimise the explosion risks.

Safety Precautions

 Use correct grade of fuel (Av-gas, Av-tur, Av-tag).

 No smoking within 15m.
 No metal studded or tipped footwear.
 Correct bonding of Aircraft and Bowser.
 Correct positioning of Bowser. 101
 No vehicles or Ground Equipment under the
aircraft.
 Maintenance activity kept to a minimum.
 No transmitting of Radar
 Aircraft & Bowser not to be left unattended.
 Check and remedy fuel spillage or leakage.
 Appropriate Fire Appliance readily available.
 The electrical state of the Aircraft must not
change while connected to the Bowser.
 HUMIDITY CONTROL 102
 Humidity control is the means to ensure that the correct amount of
water moisture content within the aircraft cabin.
Humidity control can be achieved two ways
 Water Separation
 Water Infiltration

 Water Separation
Three types of water separator in general use

Diffuser type
 Bag type
 Swirl vane type.
 DIFFUSER TYPE
 This type consists of a Diffuser constructed from layers of monel metal 103
gauze and glass fibre cloth sandwiched between layers of stainless
steel gauze.

 It is supported by the diffuser cone and held in place by a relief valve

housing.

 As the air leaves the diffuser and passes over the diffuser, moisture in
the air is converted into water droplets.

 The droplets enter the collector shell and are deposited into collector
tubes where they drain down to a collector box from where the water
is ejected overboard.
 104


 BAG TYPE
105
 A porous bag, supported by a shell is fitted within the extractor to
convert moisture into water droplets.

 A swirl is imparted into the conditioned air and the centrifugal effect
forces the droplets to the outlet shell where it collects and drains from
the component.

 A bag visual indicator operated by back pressure, will show when the
bag becomes dirty or blocked.
106
SWIRL VANE TYPE
 This type uses centrifugal force to spin the moisture-laden air 107
outwards against the exit shell.

 The swirl vane, either fixed or rotating imparts the swirl by rotating the
airflow at high speed.

 The action, separates the heavier water droplets in the moisture and
collects them in a sump, to be drained away.
108
 HEATING
 At altitude, the ram-air passing through the cabin would be very cold,109
so a heating system is required.
 Heating systems can be generally divided into two types
 Exhaust heating systems.
 Combustion heating systems.

Exhaust Heating Systems.

 This type of heating system employs a heater surrounds the exhaust pipes
coming from a piston engine, or the jet pipe of a turbo-jet.
 The heated air joins the cold air at the mixing valve and the combined flow is
directed into the passenger cabin.
 Some aircraft will be fitted with carbon monoxide detectors within the cabin
area.
 These are indicators filled with brightly coloured crystals, which turn
black if exposed to dangerous levels of carbon monoxide. 110

Exhaust System Heater

 COMBUSTION HEATING SYSTEMS 111

 Combustion chamber heater assembly is to provide the heat source,

rather than the exhaust heating method.
 Fuel is directed from the aircraft fuel system, through a pressure
regulating and shut off valve that ensures the fuel is at the correct
pressure for atomisation.
 The combustion chamber assembly heats up the ram air that passes
around it.
112
 TEMPERATURE CONTROL
113
 The temperature in the passenger cabin, flight compartment and
other areas needs to be regulated for comfort.
 Temperature regulation for the majority of aircraft that employ the
engine bleed air method.
 An electric motor driving a double butterfly type air mixing valve,
regulates the cabin temperature, by allowing a controlled amount of
hot air to by-pass the air cycle system.
 The position of the air-mixing valve is determined by signals from the
temperature control system.
 The temperature control system is normally operated automatically or
as a manual system.
 114
FLYING CONTROLS
 PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS
 Ailerons
 Elevators
 Rudders

 SECONDARY OR AUXILIARY CONTROLS

 Spoilers
 Trim controls
 High Lift Devices
 Speed Brakes and Lift Dump
Load factor

 In aeronautics, the load factor is defined as the ratio of the lift of

an aircraft to its weight [1] [2] and represents a global measure of
the stress ("load") to which the structure of the aircraft is subjected.
 A load factor of one, or 1 g, represents conditions in straight and
level flight, where the lift is equal to the weight. Load factors greater
or less than one (or even negative) are the result of maneuvers or
wind gusts.
Vapour Cycle Cooling
 Can be used as an alternative to the air cycle cooling 117
system.
 Not commonly used and used as the means to remove
heat from electrical and electronic equipment.
system relies on the principle of the ability of a refrigerant to
absorb heat when changing from a liquid to a gas,
through the process of vaporisation or expansion.
Liquids with a low boiling point have a stronger tendency to
evaporate at normal temperatures.
 118
CONDENSER

RAM AIR
RECIEVER DRYER

AIR SUPPLY THERMOSTATIC

EXPANSION VALVE

CAPILLARY TUBE

TURBO COMPRESSOR EVAPORATOR

TEMPERATURE SENSOR TEMPERATURE

CONTROL VALVES

AIR DISTRIBUTION
 INTEGRAL TANK SEALING
119
 Before assembly, all the structural parts that become integral fuel
tanks are cleaned to a particular specification.
 Immediately coated with a special sealant.
 This first coating of sealant is called the ‘interfay’.
 After the joint is tightened it is necessary to remove the surplus sealant
that has been squeezed out as the joint closed.
 Applied at the second coating, is called the fillet.
 A final brush-on coat of sealant is applied to overlap the joint and
fillet.
 As an aid to quick production, the joint can be covered by a barrier
coating of a quicker drying substance.
120
 SLATS
121
 Slats are separate small aerofoils, which can be fixed or retractable.
 Their purpose is to control the air passing over the top of the wing at
slow speeds
OPERATION SYSTEMS
122
Manual Operation
Powered Flight Controls (P.F.C.U’s)
 In large modern aircraft that fly at high speeds, the air loads on the
flying control surfaces is very high the ability to move them manually
by pilot is very difficult.
 POWERED FLYING CONTROL UNIT or BOOSTER being used to convert
hydraulic pressure into a force exerted on the control surface.
 To control the P.F.C.U. a servo valve (control valve) is mounted on the
jack.
123
INPUT SYSTEMS
 Generally the input system of the powered flying control system is 124
mainly a cable system.

 Quadrants, pulleys and fairleads with the connections to the control

column and the PFCU input lever by push rods.

 To guard against loss of control due to cable breaks the cable system
is duplicated.

 The cable systems meet at a common input lever to the PFCU'S.

Trim controls

 To make fine adjustments to primary flight controls for a stable flight

PHOTOELECTRIC SMOKE DETECTORS 126
 Air from the monitored compartment is
drawn through the detector chamber and
a light beam is shone on it.
 A photoelectric cell installed in the
chamber senses the light that is refracted
by the smoke particles.
 The photocell is installed in a bridge circuit
that measures any changes, in the amount
of current that it conducts
 When there is no smoke in the chamber air,
no light is refracted and the photocell
produces a reference current.
 When smoke is in the chamber air, some of
the light is refracted and sensed by the
photocell. Its conductivity changes,
changing the amount of current. These
changes in current are amplified and used
to initiate a smoke warning signal.