Heat Exchanger2009 Proposal#1

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1-Introduction & Heat transfer mechanisms
2-Factors affecting heat transfer
3-Basic conduction/convection equations
4-Types of heat exchangers
5-Double pipe exchangers
6-Air cooled exchangers
7-Plate and frame heat exchanger
8-Heat exchanger operations
9-Heat exchanger problems

Functions of heat transfer
Equipment
3
Applications of heat tansfer
equipment
• automobile radiators
• Condensers
• evaporators
• air pre-heaters
• oil coolers.
4
Applications of heat transfer
equipment
• Process liquid or gas cooling.
• Process or refrigerant vapor or steam
condensing.
• Process liquid, steam or refrigerant
evaporation.
• Process heat removal and preheating of feed
water.
• Thermal energy conservation efforts and heat
recovery.
5
Heat Transfer in heat
exchangers
6
Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchangers -
Types and Application
 Shell and Tube
Exchangers
 Plate Exchangers
 Plate-Fin Exchangers
 Air Cooled Exchangers
 Spiral Exchangers
 Compact Type
Exchangers
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Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger
Sizes vary for shell and tube heat exchangers, here loaded onto
a lorry for transportation 9
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
An example of a U-tube heat exchanger in the workshop

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11
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Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
 Most widely used in industry

 Advantages -
 Can be designed for virtually any application
 Large heat transfer area in a relatively small
volume
 Can be operated at high temperatures and
pressures
 Can be easily cleaned 13
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
 Disadvantages -
 Can be quite large and heavy for required
duty
 Requires a large footprint for large
applications
 Can become expensive for large heat transfer
duties
14
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger -
Construction Types COLD FLUID
OUTLET HOT FLUID
SHELL
INLET
 Fixed Head -
HOT FLUID
TUBES COLD FLUID
OUTLET
INLET
 Simplest and cheapest construction type

 Difficult to clean shell as tubes can’t be removed
 No provision for expansion of shell and tubes which
are at different temperatures
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U-Tube Construction Type
HOT FLUID
COLD FLUID SHELL
INLET
U-Tube -
OUTLET U-TUBES

HOT FLUID COLD FLUID

OUTLET INLET
 Limited to clean fluids as tubes and bundle are hard to clean

 Difficult to replace a tube in this case
 U-tube bundle is floating so thermal expansion can be
tolerated
16
Shell Types
 One Pass shell
SHELL SIDE FLUID IN
SHELL SIDE FLUID OUT
 most commonly used arrangement due to

simplicity in operation and construction
17
Shell Types
 Two Pass Shell with Longitudinal

Baffle
SHELL SIDE FLUID IN
 used when shell and tube temperature difference isn’t

suitable for one pass
 baffle gives larger heat transfer area
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Shell Types
 Split Flow
SHELL SIDE FLUID IN
 used to reduce shell side pressure drop where

pressure drop is the controlling factor in the
design 19
Shell Types
 Double Split Flow SHELL

SHELL
SIDE
SIDE
FLUID IN
FLUID IN
SHELL SHELL
SIDE SIDE
FLUID OUT FLUID OUT
 used where shell and tube temperature difference is

insufficient and also that the design is more concerned with
shell side pressure drop
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Counter Current Operation
T cold in
T hot in
T hot in T hot out

T hot out
T cold out
T cold in
T cold out
 Hot and cold fluids flow in opposite directions through the shell and
the tube
 Potential for temperature cross over (see diagram)
 (ie T hot out < T cold out).
 Mean temperature difference is greater than for co-current, allowing

larger heat transfer 21
Co-current Operation
T cold in
T hot in
T hot in T hot out T hot out
T cold out
T cold in
T cold out
 Hot and cold fluids flow in the same direction

 Less chance of a temperature cross over
 Log mean temperature difference is less preventing maximum heat
transfer
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Basic Principles of Heat Transfer
 Simplest equation which represents heat
transfer is -
Q  UATLM
 where
Q = heat transferred, kW
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, kW/m2oC
A = heat transfer area, m2
TLM = log mean temperature difference, oC
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 Log Mean Temperature Difference -

GTTD  LTTD
LMTD 
 GTTD 
LN  
 LTTD 
 where
GTTD = greatest terminal temperature difference
LTTD = least terminal temperature difference
 both GTTD and LTTD terms vary for counter and co-current
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Typical U-Values
 Water coolers -
 Gas 1-35bara ~ 200-285 W/m2K
 Gas 35-70bara ~ 285-455W/m2K
 Gas >70bara ~ 450-570 W/m2K
 Natural Gasoline ~ 400-510 W/m2K
 Air ~ 85-140 W/m2K
 Water ~ 965-1135 W/m2K
 Water condensers -
 Fractionator overhead ~ 400-455 W/m2K
 Light Hydrocarbon ~ 480-765 W/m2K
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More Typical U-Values
 Reboilers -
 Steam ~ 795-910 W/m2K
 Hot oil ~ 510-680 W/m2K
 General -
 Gas-gas (35bara) ~ 285-400 W/m2K
 Gas-gas (70bara) ~ 310-425 W/m2K
 Gas-propane chiller ~ 340-510 W/m2K
 Oil-oil ~ 450-570 W/m2K
 Propane-propane ~ 570-740 W/m2K
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 Another simple equation for heat

transfer is -
Q  mCP T
 where
Q = heat transferred, kW
m = mass flowrate for fluid, kg/s
Cp = Specific heat capacity of fluid, kJ/kgoC
T = change in temperature of fluid, oC
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Pressure-Temperature Diagram
 This diagram shows how a fluids’ phase changes with a change in temperature and pressure -
 A - Vapour phase only

P
Liquid
A
 B - Liquid droplets form in vapour
Region B  (Dew point)
C
E  C - Vapour and liquid phases co-exist

D
2 Vapour  D - Vapour fully condensed

phase Region  (Bubble point)
region
 E - Liquid phase only
T
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Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger -
Design Considerations
 Condensers -
 Latent and sensible heat removed

 Latent heat = due to phase change
 Sensible heat = temperature reduction of fluid
 Generally 3 zones -
 vapour sub-cooling, A - B
 condensation, B - D, and
 liquid sub-cooling, D - E
 Pressure drops normally limited to 1 bar
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Reboiler Types
FORCED CIRCULATION THERMOSYPHON KETTLE TYPE

REBOILER REBOILER REBOILER
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Reboiler Types
 Reboilers -
 Types :
 Kettle type - most commonly used in which boiling takes

place on tubes immersed in a pool of liquid
 Forced circulation - fluid is pumped through the exchanger
and the vapour formed is separated in the base of the
column
 Thermosyphon - The liquid circulation through the exchanger
is maintained by the difference in density between the two
phases
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Thermosyphon Recirculating
Reboilers Are Applicable When Process Operations
Are Consistently Near Design Rates. Typically, These Are Vertical
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Air Coolers
 Rectangular bundle of hot fluid filled
tubes
 Air is ‘sucked’ or blown over bundle
 External fins are used to increase
heat transfer area
 Two main types -
 Forced draft
 Induced draft
Air cooled heat exchanger
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Operation of air cooled heat
exchanger
INLET/OUTLET
HEADER
RETURN
HEADER
FANS
AIR PLENUM
CHAMBER
FAN
MOTORS
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AIR FLOW
Air Coolers
 Advantages -
 easy to assemble, maintain and install
 useful when cooling water is not available but also commonly

used when cooling water is available
 Disadvantages -
 can be large and heavy for large applications
 power is required to operate
 requires regular maintenance resulting in more downtime
 more difficult to control outlet temperature
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Printed Circuit Heat Exchangers
(PCHE)
 Shell and tube exchangers are difficult to reduce in size, thus
smaller types are sought for offshore purposes
 Compact exchangers used to cool natural gas offshore due to
space restrictions
 Advantages -
 Four to six times smaller than conventional heat exchangers
 Pressure capability in excess of 650 bar

 Extreme temperatures possible
 Corrosion resistant
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(PCHE)
 Advantages -
 Larger surface area in a given volume i.e. same duty, but
smaller in size
 Highly efficient, recovering greater amounts of energy between
streams
 Can handle multiple streams and wide range of temperatures
and pressures
 Lower installed cost
 Disadvantages -
 Easily fouled due to smaller volume
 Can crack if oscillations in temperature due to differential

thermal expansion
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(PCHE)
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Plate Heat Exchanger
 The unit consists of a series of

gasketed, embossed metal
plates bolted together between
end frames to form channels
through which hot and cold
media flow
 Generally used offshore for -
 low pressure applications
where ease of cleaning is
required
 Can be used up to 24-26 bar if
semi-welded on process side
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Plate Flow Path
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 Advantages -
 Large surface area can be obtained in a small volume
 Additional plates can be added at little extra expense to same

plate frame
 High heat transfer coefficient enables operation with small
temperature difference, thus high heat recovery
 Easily dismantled for maintenance and cleaning
 Disadvantages -
 Relatively low liquid capacity
 More susceptible to leaks due to gasket failure
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Classification
According
to Flow
Arrangement
Parallel flow Counter flow Cross flow
57
Parallel Flow
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Counter Flow
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Cross flow
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TEMA Shell Types and Standards
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Classification
According
to Pass
Arrangement
Single pass Multi-pass
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Counter current correction factor
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Classification
According
to Transfer
Process
Indirect Contact Direct Transfer

Heat Exchangers Type Exchangers
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Impact of Flow Rate Changes
on Heat Exchanger Heat
Transfer Rate
(1) If the flow rate of the cold fluid in a
heat exchanger is INCREASED
(2) If the flow rate of the hot fluid in a
heat exchanger is INCREASED
92
Impact of Inlet Flow
Temperature Changes on Heat
Exchanger Heat Transfer Rate
1) If the hot fluid inlet temperature in

a heat exchanger is INCREASED
2) If the cold fluid inlet temperature in
a heat exchanger is INCREASED
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Classification of heat
exchangers
94
Classification of heat
exchangers
 industrial heat exchangers have been
classified according to
(1) Construction
(2) transfer processes
(3) degrees of surface compactness
(4) flow arrangements
(5) pass arrangements
(6) phase of the process fluids
(7) heat-transfer mechanisms.
95
Classification
According
to Construction
Extended surface
Tubular heat Plate heat
heat
exchangers exchangers
exchangers
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Tubular Heat Exchanger
97
Double Pipe Exchangers
98
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
99
Coiled Tube Heat Exchanger
100
101
102
103
spiral plate heat exchanger
104
Extended Surface Exchangers
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Classification
According
to Surface
Compactness
Compact Non-compact
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Classification
According
to Phase
of Fluids
Gas-liquid Liquid-liquid Gas-gas
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SELECTION OF HEAT
EXCHANGERS
108
Selection Criteria
1.Materials of construction
2. Operating pressure and temperature,
temperature program, and temperature driving
force
3.Flow rates
4. Flow arrangements
5.Performance parameters-thermal effectiveness
and pressure drops
6. Fouling tendencies
7. Types and phases of fluids
109
Selection Criteria
8. Maintenance, inspection, cleaning,
extension, and repair possibilities
9. Overall economy
10. Fabrication techniques
11. Intended applications
110
111
REQUIREMENTS OF
HEAT EXCHANGERS
1. High thermal effectiveness
2. Pressure drop as low as possible
3. Reliability and life expectancy
4. High-quality product and safe operation
5. Material compatibility with the process fluids
6. Convenient size, easy for installation, reliable in use
7. Easy for maintenance and servicing
8. Light in weight but strong in construction to withstand the
operational pressures
9. Simplicity of manufacture
10.Low cost
11. Possibility of effecting repair to maintenance problems
112
113
Shell and tube heat
exchangers
114
Types and Standards of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
• ’ Association) are Small design : is the design from 2 in. to
around 24 in. in shell diameter. Shell is made of pipe of low cost
welded steel, brazed pipe, cast end bonnets and copper tubing
rolled or brazed to the tube sheet.
• Major design : is of shell diameter from 24 in. to over 100 in.
Above 24 in., manufactures There are different designs of shell
and tube heat exchangers, based on shell diameter.
• use rolled and welded steel plates for shells, which is more
costly and not rounded well.
• Special design: is of shell diameter over 100 in.
• A typical shell and tube heat exchanger configurations (TEMA,

Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers :
115
Shell and tube heat exchanger
1. tube bundle
2. shell
3. tube
4. baffle
5. vent nozzle
6. inlet tubeside
7. Tubesheet
8. drain nozzle
9. shellside
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TEMA classes
• TEMA C - General Service

• TEMA B - Chemical Service
• TEMA R - Refinery Service
120
121
TUBES
• Tubes should be able to withstand the following:
• Operating temperature and pressure on both
sides
• 2. Thermal stresses due to the differential
thermal expansion between the shell and the
tube
• bundle
• 3. Corrosive nature of both the shell-side and
the tube-side fluids
122
TUBES
• There are two types of tubes: straight
tubes and U-tubes.
• The tubes are further classified as
• 1. Plain tubes
• 2. Finned tubes
• 3. Duplex or bimetallic tubes
• 4. Enhanced surface tubes
123
TUBES
• Tubing that is generally used in TEMA
sizes is made from low carbon steel,
copper, Copper-Nickel, stainless steel,
titanium and a few others.
• It is common to use tubing from ¼ in to 2
in in these designs
124
Tube Wall Thickness
• The wall thickness is selected on these
bases:
• (1) providing an adequate margin against corrosion
• (2) fretting and wear due to flow induced vibration,
• (3) axial strength, particularly in fixed
• tube-sheet exchangers
• (4) standardized dimensions
• (5) cost.
125
Number of Tubes
• The number of tubes depends upon the fluid flow rate
and the available pressure drop.
• The number of tubes is selected such that the tube-side
velocity for water and similar liquids range from 3 to 8 ft/s
(0.9-2.4 m/s) and the shell-side velocity from 2 to 5 ft/s
(0.6-1.5 m/s) .
• The lower velocity limit is desired to limit fouling; the
higher velocity is limited to avoid erosion-corrosion on
the tube side, and impingement attack and flow-induced
vibration on the shell side.
126
Tube layout patterns
128
• For identical tube pitch and flow rates, the
tube layouts in decreasing order of shell-
side heat-transfer coefficient and pressure
drop are 30°, 45",60°, and 90".
• Thus the 90" layout will have the lowest
heat-transfer coefficient and pressure
drop.
129
• The selection of the tube layout pattern depends
on the following parameters, which influence the
shell-side performance and hence the overall
performance:
1. Compactness
2. Heat transfer
3. Pressure drop
4. Accessibility for mechanical cleaning
5. Phase change if any on the shell side
130
• A triangular layout is limited to clean
shellside services.
• For dirty shellside services, a square
layout is typically employed.
• when the shellside Reynolds number is
low (< 2,000), it is usually advantageous to
employ a rotated square pattern because
this produces much higher turbulence
131
Tube pitch
• The selection of tube pitch is a compromise
between a close pitch for increased shell-side
heat
• transfer and surface compactness, and a larger
pitch for decreased shell-side pressure drop and
• fouling, and ease in cleaning.
132
Tube pitch
• For a triangular pattern, TEMA specifies a
minimum tube pitch of 1.25 times the tube
O.D.
• For square patterns, TEMA additionally
recommends a minimum cleaning lane of
1/4 in. (or 6 mm) between adjacent tubes.
133
Tube-sheets
 Tube-sheets are usually made from a round flat piece of metal.
 Tube holes are drilled in a precise location and pattern.
 The tubesheet is in contact with both fluids and so must have

corrosion resistance appropriate for the fluids and velocities.
• Tubes are attached to the tube sheet by pneumatic or hydraulic

pressure or by roller expansion.
• The tube hole pattern or pitch varies the distance from one tube to
the other and angle of the tubes relative to each other and to the
direction of flow.
• This allows the manipulation of fluid velocities and pressure drop,

and provides the maximum amount of turbulence and tube surface
contact for effective heat transfer.
134
•Tube holes can be drilled and can be machined with one or more
grooves to increase the strength of the tube joint.
Tubesheet and tube fixation assembly
135
136
137
Fixed Tube sheet
138
U-tube
139
Floating head
140
141
142
Shell Assembly:
In applications where the fluid velocity for the nozzle diameter is high,
an impingement plate is specified to distribute the fluid evenly to the
tubes and prevent fluid educed erosion, cavitations and vibration.
An impingement plate installed inside the shell to reduce the inlet fluid velocity
143
Selection of TEMA Heat Exchangers for Different Applications:
TEMA E shell type is the E shell it is most suitable for most
industrial process cooling applications.
TEMA-F shell provides for a longitudinal flow plate to be installed
inside the tube bundle assembly.
TEMA G and H shell designs are most suitable for phase change
applications where the bypass around the longitudinal plate and counter-
current flow is 1ess important than even flow distribution.
TEMA J Shells are typically specified for phase change duties where
significantly reduced shell side pressure drops are required
The TEMA K shell, also termed a kettle reboiler is specified when the
shell side stream will undergo vaporization. The liquid level of a K shell
design should just cover the tube bundle, which fills the smaller diameter
end of the shell.
The TEMA X shell, or cross flow shell is most commonly used in vapor condensing
applications, though it can also be used effectively in low pressure gas cooling or heating. 144
It
produces a very low shell side pressure drop, and is therefore most suitable
TEMA Shell Types and Standards
145
TEMA Shell and tube heat exchanger
146
c) two-tube pass, two shell pass
147
Fixed tube-sheet, 2 pass heat
exchanger
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
End Channels and Bonnets
• End channels or bonnets are typically, fabricated
or cast. They control the flow of the tube side fluid
in the tube circuit.
• They are attached to the tube sheets by bolting
with a gasket between the two metal surfaces.
• In some cases, effective sealing can be obtained
by installing an O-ring in a machined groove in the
tube sheet.
156
157
Fabricated heads can be made in a wide variety of
configurations as shown
Front and Rear ends for 4-tube pass

158
Baffles used in shell and tube heat exchangers
Baffles serve the following functions.

• To support the tubes during assembly and operation
• To prevent vibration from flow induced eddies
• to direct the shell side fluid back and forth across the
tube bundle to provide effective velocity and heat
transfer rates.
159
Baffle Spacing
• The TEMA standards specify the minimum
baffle spacing as one-fifth of the shell
inside diameter or 2 in., whichever is
greater
160
161
Commonly used Baffles
a) Orifice baffles
b) Disk and Doughnut
baffles
c) Segmented baffles
162
163
Baffle Cut
• Baffle cut can vary between 15% and 45%
of the shell inside diameter.
• Reducing baffle cut below 20% to increase
the shellside heat-transfer coefficient or
increasing the baffle cut beyond 35% to
decrease the shellside pressure drop
usually lead to poor designs.
164
165
166
• For single-phase fluids on the shellside, a
horizontal baffle cut is recommended,
because this minimizes accumulation of
deposits at the bottom of the shell.
• In the case of a two-pass shell (TEMA F),
a vertical cut is preferred for ease of
fabrication and bundle assembly.
167
Horizontal cut segmental baffles
168
Vertical cut segmental baffles.
169
170
171
Fluid Stream Allocations
1. The higher-pressure fluid normally flows through the
tube side.
2. If it is necessary to put the higher-pressure stream in
the shell, it should be placed in a smaller diameter
and longer shell.
3. Place corrosive fluids in the tubes. Epoxy coated
tube side can resist corrosion.
4. Flow the higher fouling fluids through the tubes.
Tubes are easier to clean using mechanical
methods.
5. It is best to place fluids requiring low pressure drops
in the shell circuit.
6. The fluid with the lower heat transfer coefficient
normally goes in the shell circuit. This allows the
use of externally finned tubes to enhance the heat
transfer rate. 172
173
Fouling
174
Fouling
• Fouling is defined as the formation on heat
transfer surfaces of undesired deposits,
which impede the heat transfer and
increase the resistance to fluid flow,
resulting in higher pressure drop.
175
EFFECT OF FOULING ON THE
THERMOHYDRAULIC
PERFORMANCE OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
1- Increase the overall thermal resistance.
2. There is an increase of the surface
roughness, thus increasing frictional
resistance to flow, and fouling blocks flow
passages; due to these effects, the
pressure drop across the heat exchanger
increases.
176
THERMOHYDRAULIC
177
178
179
THERMOHYDRAULIC
3. Fouling may create a localized environment
where corrosion is promoted.
4. Fouling will reduce the thermal effectiveness of
heat exchangers, which in turn affect the
subsequent processes or will increase the
thermal load on the system.
5. An additional goal become prevention of
contamination of a process fluid or product.
180
COSTS OF HEAT EXCHANGER
FOULING
1. Increased capital expenditure due to
oversizing.
2. Energy losses associated with poor
performance of the equipment.
3. Treatment cost to lessen corrosion and
fouling.
4. Lost production due to maintenance
schedules.
181
PARAMETERS THAT INFLUENCE
FOULING RESISTANCES
1. Properties of fluids and their propensity for
fouling
2. Surface temperature
3. Velocity and hydrodynamic effects
4. Tube material
5. Fluid purity and freedom from contamination
6. Surface roughness
7. Suspended solids
8. Placing the more fouling fluid on the tube side
182
PARAMETERS THAT INFLUENCE
FOULING RESISTANCES
9. Shell-side flow
10. Type of heat exchanger
11. Heat exchanger geometry and orientation
12. Equipment design
13. Seasonal temperate changes
14. Heat-transfer processes like sensible heating,
cooling, condensation, vaporization, etc.
183
184
Fouling Mechanisms
1. Particulate fouling
2. Reaction fouling
3. Corrosion fouling
4. Precipitation fouling
5. Biological fouling
6. Solidification fouling
185
TEMA FOULING RESISTANCE
VALUES
186
187
Reducing Fouling
1- fouling fluid would be placed in the tube side.

2- the tube side velocity has to increase according to
the fouling factor.
3- cooler tube wall temperature in reboilers make for
reduced fouling.
188
Flow-Induced Vibration in A Heat Exchanger
•Vibration is usually caused by the shedding of vortices from the

downstream side of a tube.
• As a vortex is shed, the flow pattern (and therefore the pressure

distribution) changes, resulting in oscillations in the magnitude
and direction of the fluid pressure forces acting on the tube.
•If the frequency of vortex shedding approaches the tube's natural

frequency, the tube will vibrate with large amplitude, resonance,
and it will fail.
189
Flow-Induced Vibration
Mechanisms
1. Vortex shedding or flow periodicity
2. Turbulent buffeting
3. Fluid elastic instability (FEI)
4. Acoustic resonance
190
Vibration control
To prevent the vibration the following guidelines are suggested:
1) Flow considerations
• For liquids, the Reynolds number should probably be in the
range 300-50,000. If the velocity head is high (pV2/9,266 >0.5
psi), the force in the streamwise direction may be sufficient to
cause damage.
• For gases or vapors, follow the same guidelines as for

liquids, if the Reynolds number is below 300,000.
191
2) Design Considerations:
– Design the shell side such that:

1. avoid large baffle cuts (greater than 35%) and
small (less than 15%), because both conditions
provide poor velocity distribution.
2. block any bypass flow paths between the bundle
and the shell, high local velocities in these areas
can cause local damage.
3. use triple-segmental baffles, which provide a flow
that is primarily parallel to the tubes.
4. decrease the tubes' unsupported span, or
enhance the method of fixing the ends of the
unsupported spans. 192
2) Design Considerations
5. Installing an impingement plate to reduce the inlet

nozzle-velocity. In more severe cases, a distribution belt
may be required.
6. Installing a tube-support baffle directly under the nozzle.
This puts the exciting force at a node, and significantly
diminishes the amplitude of the vibration that can be
produced in the other spans.
7. Rolling the tubes into the first baffle in the vicinity of the
nozzle. Such rolling partially isolates the exciting force
from the rest of the tube, and reduces the amplitude of
the vibration.
8. Extra-thick baffles reduce the rate of wear and its close
fit reduce the natural frequency. But this close fit may
result in assembly difficulties.
193
Number of Tubes
• The number of tubes depends upon the
fluid flow rate and the available pressure
drop.
• The number of tubes is selected such that
the tube-side velocity for water and similar
liquids range from 3 to 8 ft/s (0.9-2.4 m/s)
and the shell-side velocity from 2 to 5 ft/s
(0.6-1.5 m/s)
194
Basic Methods to Calculate
Thermal Effectiveness
195
196
197
• This approach is followed in TEMA
Standards
198
• Heat Capacity Ratio, R.
For a shell and tube exchanger, R is the

ratio of the capacity rate of the tube fluid to
the shell fluid.
199
TEMA Chart
200
LMTD Method
201
202
203
204
205
206
Instructions for Shell and tube
Heat Exchanger Installation
• Provide sufficient clearance at the
channel or bonnet end of the unit to
permit removal of tube bundles from
shells.
• On the floating head end, a space of 3
or 4 feet should be provided to permit
the removal of the floating head.
207
• Foundations must be adequate so that
exchangers will not settle and cause
piping strains.
• Foundation bolts should be set to allow
for setting inaccuracies.
208
• Provide valves and by-passes in the
piping system so that both the shell
and tube bundle may be by-passed to
permit cutting out the unit for
inspection or repairs.
209
• Provide thermometer wells and
pressure gage connections in all
piping to and from the unit, as near
the unit as possible.
• Provide necessary air vent cocks so
that the unit can be purged to prevent
or relieve vapor or gas binding of
either the tube bundle or the shell.
210
• Loosen foundation bolts at one end of
the unit to allow free expansion of
shell. Oval holes in foundation
brackets are provided for this
purpose.
• Set exchangers level so that pipe
connections may be made without
forcing.
211
• Inspect all openings in the heat
exchanger for foreign material.
• Be sure entire system is clean before
starting operation to prevent plugging
of tubes or shell side passages with
sand or refuse. The use of strainers
or settling tanks in pipelines leading to
the heat exchanger is recommended.
212
• Drain connections should not be piped
to a common closed manifold.
• To guard against pulsation of the

fluids caused by reciprocating pumps,
compressors or other equipment a
surge drum should be installed.
213
Heat Exchanger Operation
• When placing a unit in operation,
open the vent connections and start to
circulate the cold medium only.
• Start operation gradually.
214
• In shutting down, flow of hot medium
should be shut off first. If it is
necessary to stop circulation of
cooling medium, the circulation of hot
medium should also be stopped by
by-passing or otherwise.
215
• Do not operate equipment under
conditions in excess of those specified
on nameplate.
• In all installations, there should be no

pulsation of fluids since this causes
vibration and strain with resulting
leaks.
216
• All gasketed joints should be
rechecked for tightness after the unit
has been heated to prevent leaks and
blowing out gaskets.
• Units with packing rings may require
adjustment from time to time to
eliminate slight leakage. As joint
containing packing rings requires only
a small amount of bolting pressure to
217
• Be sure that all parts of the system are clean and in proper
operating condition. An exchanger cannot perform properly unless
all connected equipment is functioning properly, yet, the exchanger
is frequently blamed for non performance when the actual trouble is
elsewhere in the system
218
Heat Exchanger Maintenance
1-Provide convenient means for frequent cleaning of heat
exchangers as suggested below:
a-Circulating hot wash oil or light distillate through tubes or
shell at a good velocity will usually effectively remove
sludge or similar soft deposits.
b-Soft salt deposits may be washed out by circulating hot
fresh water.
C- Some commercial cleaning compounds may be effective
in removing more stubborn deposits. Use in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions.
D- If none of the above described methods are effective for
the removal of hard scale or coke a mechanical means
may be used.
219
Instructions for Shell and tube Heat
Exchanger Maintenance
2-Frequently and at regular intervals,
observe interior and exterior condition of
all tubes and keep them clean.
220
3-.Do not attempt to clean tubes by blowing steam
through individual tubes. This overheats the tube
and results in severe expansion strains and
leaking tube-to-tube-sheet joints.
4-Do not blow out heat exchanger with air when

fluids normally handled are of an inflammable
nature.
5-Do not open heads until all pressure is off

equipment and the unit is drained.
221
6-Do not tighten bolts until gasket is positioned
properly. This precaution will eliminate one
cause for taking down units because of leaks
7- Exchangers subject to fouling or scaling should
be cleaned periodically.
8-To clean or inspect inside of tubes, remove
channel covers (or bonnets). Do not remove
channels
222
9-. To locate leaking joints between tube and tube sheet or a split
tube, proceed as follows:
• Channel Type
(a) Remove channel covers
(b) Apply hydraulic pressure in shell
• Bonnet Type
(a) Remove bonnets
(b) Bolt test rings in place with gaskets and packing
(c) Apply hydraulic pressure in shell
Use only cold water for hydrostatic test. The point where the water
escapes indicates the defective tube or joint.
223
10- when removing tube bundles from exchangers
for inspection or cleaning, care should be
exercised to avoid damage by improper handling.
11- In cleaning a tube bundle, tubes should not be
hammered on with any metallic tool. In case it is
necessary to use scrapers, care should be
exercised to see that the scraper is not sharp
enough to cut the metal of the tubes.
224
Heat Exchanger
Troubleshooting
To effectively troubleshoot poorly performing heat exchanger
systems, follow these steps:
1- Clearly define the problem based on observations and accumulated
information.
2- Review available historical system operation data and fluid condition
analyses.
3- Identify and obtain any additional information and analysis that may
be required.
4- Identify and list potential root causes and consider each.
5- Deduce the root cause based on the accumulated information.
6- Execute corrective action.
225
Heat Exchanger
Troubleshooting
Fluid Monitoring
A complete fluid monitoring program should
involve regular analysis of
1- The fluid's total acid number (TAN)

2- viscosity
3- simulated distillation (GCD),
4- flashpoint
5- solids metals and water.
226
Heat Exchanger
Troubleshooting
Some Frequent Causes of Problems
1- using a heat transfer fluid well beyond its
condemning limits
2- subjecting the fluid to temperatures that exceed
the recommended maximums.
3- inadequate cleaning.
4- extraneous contamination
5- water used during cleaning that is not removed
during startup.
227
Heat Exchanger
Troubleshooting
• Insufficient Heat At User.
1- Fouled Heat Transfer Surfaces.
2- Low Fluid Flow.
3-Low Fluid Temperature from the Heat Source.
4- Increased Viscosity.
228
Heat Exchanger
Troubleshooting
High Fluid Losses/Make-Up Rate.
1- Leaks from Fittings and Connections.
2- Vibration
3- thermal stress
229
Heat Exchanger
Troubleshooting
Short Fluid Life.
1- Oxidation.
2- Thermal Degradation.
3- Contamination.
230
Heat Exchanger
Troubleshooting
Frequent Filter Plugging.
1-Polymerization.
2-Fouling After Cleaning.
3- Unsaturated Components
4- Increased Pressure Drop in the System.
231
GUIDE TO FREE
TROUBLESHOOTING
• Avoiding leakage
1- using u-bend exchangers or Floating head.

2- a minimum thickness of tube tube-sheet should be of 1
in.
3-two grooves are specified for all tube sheet leak.
232
GUIDE TO FREE
TROUBLESHOOTING
– Reducing Fouling
1- fouling fluid would be placed in the tube side.
2- the tube side velocity has to increase according to
the fouling factor.
3-Inlet and outlet of connection should be located at the
top and the bottom of the shell side and tube side.
4- cooler tube wall temperature in reboilers make for
reduced fouling.
5- using spiral tube heat exchanger.
233
Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers
234
235
Air Versus Water Cooling
(1) cooler location

(2) space for cooling system
(3) effect of weather
(4) design pressure and temperature
(5) danger of contamination
(6) fouling, cleaning, maintenance
(7) capital costs
236
Air cooling has the following disadvantages
1. Air coolers require large surfaces because of their low

heat-transfer coefficient on the air side and the low
specific heat of air. Water coolers require much less heat-
transfer surface.
2. Air coolers cannot be located next to large obstructions if
air recirculation is to be avoided.
3. Because of air’s low specific heat, and dependence on the
dry-bulb temperature, air cannot usually cool a process
fluid to low temperatures. Water can usually cool a
process fluid from 10°F to 5°F lower than air, and recycled
water can be cooled to near the wet-bulb temperature of
the site in a cooling tower.
4. The seasonal variation in air temperatures can affect
performance and make temperature control more difficult.
Low winter temperatures may cause process fluids to
freeze.
5. Air coolers are affected by hailstorms and may be affected
by cyclonic winds. 237
6. Noise is a factor with air coolers.
238
Tube Bundle Fin Geometry
. The tubes are usually 1 in (25.4 mm)

diameter;
fin density varies from 7 to 16 fins/in (276-
630 fins/m),
fin height from to 2 in (9.53-15.88 mm)
fin thickness from 0.012 to 0.02 in (0.3-0.51
mm).
The tubes are arranged in standard bundles
ranging from 4 to 40 ft (1.22-12.20 m) long
and from 4 to 20 ft (1.22-6.10 m) wide, but
usually limited to 9.90-10.8 ft (3.2-3.5 m).
239
240
Problems with Heat Exchangers in
Low-Temperature Environments
Temperature Control
241
Forced Draft Versus Induced Draft
Forced Draft
 Requiring smaller volumes of air
and less horsepower
 They generally offer better
arrangements for maintenance and
they are easily accessible.
 Forced draft fans afford a higher
heat-transfer coefficient relative to
induced draft
242
Forced Draft Versus Induced Draft
Induced Draft
1. Easier to shop assemble, ship, and install.
2. The hoods offer protection from weather and hailstone
protection.
3. Easier to clean the underside when covered with lint,
bugs, and debris.
4. Better air distribution over the tube bundle.
5. Less likely to be affected by hot air recirculation.
The disadvantages of induced draft design are:
1. More difficult to remove bundles for maintenance.
2. High-temperature service limited due to effect of hot
air on the fans.
3. More difficult to work on the fan assembly, due to heat
from the bundle and due to their location.
243
Air Velocity
Face velocity is usually in the range of

1.5-4 m/s.
244
245
.
246
.
247
248
PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER-DETAILED
CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
249
250
Flow Patterns and Pass
Arrangement
.
Series flow arrangement
251
Arrangement
.
Z-arrangement
U-arrangement
Single-pass looped arrangement
252
Arrangement
.
Multi-pass with equal passes
253
Arrangement
.
Multi-pass with unequal pass
254
BENEFITS OFFERED BY
PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS
1. High Turbulence and High Heat-
Transfer Performance.
2. Reduced Fouling.
3. Cross-Contamination Eliminated.
255
BENEFITS OFFERED BY
4- True Counteflow.
5-Close Approach Temperature
6- Multiple Duties With a Single Unit
256
BENEFITS OFFERED BY
7- Easy to Inspect and Clean, and Less
Maintenance.
8- Lightweight.
9- High- Viscosity Applications,
10- Saves Space and Servicing Time.
11- Less Operational Problems.
12-Lower Cost.
13- Quick Process Control.
257
258
259
Plate
 Plate thickness as low as 0.6 mm (0.024
in) can therefore be used for working
pressures as high as 230 psig
260
 Types of Plate Corrugation

1- Intermating troughs or wash-board
2- The chevron or herringbone pattern.
261
262
263
Gasket Selection
264
265
266
.
267
.
268
.
269
.
270
.
271
Radiation Heat transfer from gases to walls
 Combustion products of hydrocarbons contains

mainly H2O and CO2 gases with different
compositions.
 The two components CO2 and H2O radiate and

absorb thermal radiation at high temperatures.
272
Fired Heaters
273
Fired Heaters Applications
Common applications of indirect heaters
1- Heating the gas from the well to prevent hydrocarbon
hydrate formation.
2- Crude oil preheat between head and pipeline.
3- Crude oil preheat to Separators or Desalters.
5- Fuel gas dew-point control systems associated with
gas turbine power plants.
6-Heating high-pressure hydrocarbon gas streams at
pressure reduction stations.
7- Liquid-gas vaporization. The Indirect Heater operates
as a vaporizer/superheated.
8- Reboiler and stabilizer medium fluid heater.
274
275
Fired Heaters
Types of Fired Heaters
The choice depends on fuel cost, thermal efficiency, temperatures

desired, size of the heal load and the fluid being heated.
A wide variety of models and heating configurations are employed

as:
• Horizontal Tube Fired heaters
• Vertical Tube Fired heaters
276
277
278
Fired Heaters
1- Horizontal tube cabin.
 The radiant-section tube coils of these heaters are
arranged horizontally
 The convection-section tube coil is positioned as a

horizontal bank of tubes
 Normally the tubes are fired vertically from the floor.
 Duties run about 3-30 MW, (10 to 100 million Btu/h).
279
Horizontal tube Fired Heaters
280
Capacity ranges: Horizontal Tubes
Cabin :
 Duties ranged from 3 to 30 MW, (10 to 100 million Btu/h).
Cabin with bridgewall

• Duties ranging from 6-30 MW
Two-cell horizontal tube box.
• Duties ranging from 30-75 MW , (100 to 250 million Btu/h).
• End fired box
• End fired box with side mounted convection section
• Single row double fired (one or more cells)
281
Horizontal tube Fired Heaters
282
Horizontal tube cabin heaters
283
Vertical tube fired heaters
3- Vertical-cylindrical, with cross flow convection
 The radiant-section tube coil is disposed in a vertical

arrangement along the walls of the combustion chamber
 These heaters, also fired vertically from the floor
 The convection section tube is a horizontal bank of tubes
 This configuration provides an economical, high-efficiency

design.
 Typical duty range is up to 3-60 MW (10 to 200 million Btu/h.)
284
Vertical tube Fired Heaters
285
Vertical tube Fired Heaters
286
Vertical Tubes Fired Heaters:
Vertical- cylindrical, All radiant
 Normal duty range from 0.1 to 6 MW
Vertical- cylindrical, with cross flow convection

 Normal duty range from 3 to 60 MW
- Vertical- cylindrical, helical coil.

 Normal duty range from 0.1 to 6 MW
Vertical- cylindrical, with integral convection

Vertical- cylindrical, Single row double fired

287
Vertical tube fired heaters
288
Fired Heaters
4- Vertical- cylindrical, helical coil.
In these units, the coil is 

arranged helical along the walls
of the combustion chamber
Firing is vertical from the floor. 
289
Fired Heaters: Radiant section
 The bulk of the heat transfer in a fired heater occurs in
the radiant section about 2/3 of total heat transferred.
 The actual radiant heat transfer depends on the
temperature and emissivity of the gas, tube layout and
spacing.
 In addition the higher tube wall temperatures raise the
potential for coke deposition (hot spots) and product
degradation.
 Typical radiant heat fluxes for heaters in E and P
operations range from 30-40 kW/m2 (10000- 12000
Btu/hr-ft2).
290
Fired Heaters: Convection section
 The surface area required in the convection section is

controlled by film resistance of the flue-gas side.
 Extended-surface used to increase the convection
transfer rate.
 Typical heat fluxes in the convection section with
plain tubes are 60-80 kW/m2 (20000-24000Btu/ft2 hr).
291
Process fluid Flow in fired heaters
 Countercurrent flow is used except for some special

services.
 The process fluid normally enters the convection tubes

and flows downward through one or more parallel
sections.
 From the convection section it flows through the shock

tubes, and the roof tubes, and the sidewall tubes for final
heating before it leaves the heater.
292
Fired Heaters: BURNERS
BURNERS:
The fundamental criteria for selecting a burner
include:
1) the ability to handle fuels having a reasonable
variation in calorific value,
2) provision for safe ignition and easy maintenance
3) a reasonable turndown ratio between maximum
and minimum firing rates,
4) predictable flame patterns for all fuels and firing
rates.
293
294
295
Gas-Fired Burners:
Gaseous fuel Burners are classified into two basic categories:
1) Premix inspirating
2) Rawgas burning.
1) Premix inspirating.
The premix burner relies on the kinetic energy made available by

the expansion of the fuel gas through an orifice to inspirate
and mix combustion air prior to ignition
Approximately 50 to 60% of the combustion air is inspirated as

primary air into the burner ahead of the ignition point.
296
Some of the advantages of this type of burner are:
 Operating flexibility is good over a range of conditions.
 Requires only limited adjustment of secondary (noinspirated)
combustion air.
 Premix burners can operate at low excess-air rates and are not
significantly affected by changes in wind velocity and direction.
 Flame length is short, and name pattern sharply defined at high heat-
release rates.
 Burner orifices or spuds are fairly large, and, since they are located in
a cold zone, are less subject to plugging than the smaller openings on
noninspirating gas burners.
297
 Some of the: disadvantages of inspirating
burners are:
 Relatively high gas pressures must be available. Below
a gas pressure of 10 psig at the burner, the percentage
of inspirated air falls rapidly and flexibility is greatly
reduced.
 Flashback of the flame from the burner tip to the mixing
orifice may occur at low gas pressures, or when the
fraction of gases having high flame-propagation
velocities, such as hydrogen, becomes too high.
 The noise level of premix inspirating burners is higher
than that of noninspirating types.
298
2) Raw-gas burning:
• The raw-gas burner receives fuel gas from the gas manifold
without any premixing of combustion air.
 The gas is then burned at a tip equipped with a series of small
ports.
Some of the advantages of this type of burner are:

 It has the greatest available turndown ratio for any
combustion condition.
 It can operate at very low gas pressures on a wide variety
of fuels and without flashback.
 Noise level is reasonably low.
299
 Some of the advantages of this type of
burner are:
 It has the greatest available turndown ratio for
any given combustion condition.
 It can operate at very low gas pressures on a
wide variety of fuels and without flashback.
 Noise level is reasonably low
300
 Some of the disadvantages of raw-gas burners are:
 Flexibility is limited over its wide turndown range. Because the
combustion-air adjustments must me made over the full operating
range of the burner.
 The drilling of the burner ports is very sensitive, and any
enlargement of the port opening will generally result in
unsatisfactory flame conditions.
 Flames tend to lengthen, and flame conditions become
unsatisfactory as the burner is pushed beyond its design level.
 The gas orifices or burner ports are exposed to the hot zone and
are subject to plugging at low velocities and high temperatures.
301
Fired Heaters: Stack Design
Stack design:
• Stack is designed to:
1) produce draft sufficient to overcome all friction to
the flue gas.
2) induce the flow of combustion air into the heater.
• A negative pressure system throughout.

• Never should a heater be operated with positive
pressure at any point within the structure.
• Positive pressure can create back fire.
302
Draft in Fired Heaters
303
Stack design:
• It is recommended that the stack design be based
on a negative pressure of 1.3 mm, 0.05 in. H2O at
this entry point.
• The use of lower pressure (i.e. more negative)

would tend to create leakage of air through various
apertures.
304
Radiant and convection Heat fluxes
•Typical Radiant heat fluxes for heaters used in

E and P operations range from 30-40 kW/m2
(10000-12000 Btu/h-ft2)
•and
•Typical Convection heat fluxes for this heaters

range from 60-80 kW/m2 (20000-24000 Btu/h-
ft2)
305
Fired heaters
Heat Balance and Thermal Efficiency
The determination of thermal efficiencies involves a

number of factors:
1. The collection of data

2. The fuel gas and flue gas composition.
3. The significance and calculation of the "percent
excess air"
4. The net heat balance calculation
306
Fired heaters
Data required for thermal efficiency calculations include:
 Fuel gas quantity, temperature, pressure, heating value,

H2O dew point, and fractional analysis.
 Stack temperature of the flue gases
 Atmospheric air data wet and dry bulb temperatures and
barometric pressure
 For hydrocarbon fluid heaters — temperature and pressure
at the inlet and outlet , and the composition.
307
Fired heaters
Calculation of The Heat Balance and Thermal Efficiency
To calculate the thermal efficiency of a heater an energy balance

around the system is made.
From the energy balance the efficiency can be calculated as follows:
Energy absorbed by process fluid


Net energy input to the burner
Net energy input to burner - stack losses - radiant losses


Net energy input to the burner
308
Fired Heaters: Troubleshooting
Some causes of troubles in fired heaters are:
1. Insufficient draft
2. Excessive draft
3. Insufficient combustion air
4. Oil burning
5. Hot tubes spots
Corrective Actions
 Controlling air supply
 Energy saving ideas
 Expanding heat capacity
309
Fired Heaters
Insufficient draft
 This may be due to:
 Draft gauge plugging
 Excess CO2 in flue gas
 Fouled convection section
 Leaks in furnace skin
 Stuck stack diameter
 Damage to furnace structure
 Smoke leaks out of convection
310
Fired Heaters
Excessive draft
 Excessive draft :
 Wastes energy from the system.
 Sucks cold air into convection section
 Causes secondary combustion in the
convection section tubes
311
Fired Heaters
Insufficient combustion air
 This may be due to:
 Fire box looks hazy
 Heater makes a thumping sound
 Temperature drops with the increase in
the fuel
 Fin-tubing damage
 Sample fire box effluent not stack gas
312
Fired Heaters
Incomplete Oil burning
 Oil pressure too high
 Oil temperature too low
 Plugged burner tips
 Enlarged holes
 Wet atomizing steam
313
Fired Heaters
Existence of hot spots in tubes
 Cool tubes are dark to cherry red
 Silver streaks are hot spots
 Low flow cause coke lay down
 Steam jet cools hot spot
 Maximize flow through hot coil
314
Fired Heaters
Corrective Actions:
 1) Controlling air supply
 Maximize Primary air
 Flame lifts off burner
 Open secondary dampers to control yellow
flame
 Cool box with excess air
 Seal convection section doors
 Burner flashback
315
Fired Heaters
Energy saving ideas
 Onstream blasting of radiant tubes
 Steam air decoking tubes
 Onstream washing convection section tubes
 Infrared thermograph survey
 SO3 dew point limit
 Minimize atomizing steam
 Install soot blowers
316
Fired Heaters
Expanding heat capacity
 Drill out burner tips
 Draft limits
 Pressure survey on flue gas side
 Add convection tubes
 Replace raw gas burners
 Increase tube side mass velocity.
317
How to Select the Optimum
Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger
1. Erosion limits: maximum fluid velocities for Flow inside
tubes
2. water
3. low carbon steel 10 ft/s
4. stainless steel 15 ft/s
5. Aluminum 6 ft/s
6. Copper 6 ft/s
7. Titanium > 50 ft/s
8. Other liquid
9. Allowable velocity for given liquid = allowable velocity of water x
square root of ( density of water/ density of liquid)
318

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1-Introduction & Heat transfer mechanisms

2-Factors affecting heat transfer

3-Basic conduction/convection equations

4-Types of heat exchangers

5-Double pipe exchangers

6-Air cooled exchangers

7-Plate and frame heat exchanger

8-Heat exchanger operations

9-Heat exchanger problems

An example of a U-tube heat exchanger in the workshop

 Most widely used in industry

 Simplest and cheapest construction type

HOT FLUID COLD FLUID

 Limited to clean fluids as tubes and bundle are hard to clean

SHELL SIDE FLUID OUT

 most commonly used arrangement due to

 Two Pass Shell with Longitudinal

SHELL SIDE FLUID OUT

 used when shell and tube temperature difference isn’t

SHELL SIDE FLUID OUT

 used to reduce shell side pressure drop where

 Double Split Flow SHELL

 used where shell and tube temperature difference is

T hot in T hot out

 Mean temperature difference is greater than for co-current, allowing

T hot in T hot out T hot out

 Hot and cold fluids flow in the same direction

 Log Mean Temperature Difference -

 Gas 35-70bara ~ 285-455W/m2K

 Gas >70bara ~ 450-570 W/m2K

 Natural Gasoline ~ 400-510 W/m2K

 Air ~ 85-140 W/m2K

 Water ~ 965-1135 W/m2K

 Light Hydrocarbon ~ 480-765 W/m2K

 Hot oil ~ 510-680 W/m2K

 Gas-gas (70bara) ~ 310-425 W/m2K

 Gas-propane chiller ~ 340-510 W/m2K

 Oil-oil ~ 450-570 W/m2K

 Propane-propane ~ 570-740 W/m2K

 Another simple equation for heat

 A - Vapour phase only

E  C - Vapour and liquid phases co-exist

2 Vapour  D - Vapour fully condensed

 Latent and sensible heat removed

 Sensible heat = temperature reduction of fluid

 Pressure drops normally limited to 1 bar

FORCED CIRCULATION THERMOSYPHON KETTLE TYPE

 Kettle type - most commonly used in which boiling takes

Air cooled heat exchanger

 useful when cooling water is not available but also commonly

 power is required to operate

 requires regular maintenance resulting in more downtime

 more difficult to control outlet temperature

 Pressure capability in excess of 650 bar

 Can crack if oscillations in temperature due to differential

 The unit consists of a series of

 Additional plates can be added at little extra expense to same

 More susceptible to leaks due to gasket failure

Parallel flow Counter flow Cross flow

Single pass Multi-pass

Indirect Contact Direct Transfer

1) If the hot fluid inlet temperature in

Gas-liquid Liquid-liquid Gas-gas