Cell Division

Inheritance
 Structure and terminology

The genetic constitution of an

individual is called the
genotype

The observable
characteristics of an organism
produced by the interaction
between genotype and
environment is called
phenotype
Homozygous

Heterozygous
When Eukaryotic Cells Divide by Meiosis
 Production of gametes in sexual reproduction
 Gametes must have half the amount of
chromosomes (haploid)
 The amount of chromosomes (diploid) is
restored when gametes unite during syngamy
 Meiosis. Produces Four Germ Cells with Half the
Number of Chromosomes and Genetically Different

DNA is
replicated

Homologous
chromosomes pair up
and align at the
equator

First meiotic
division

Second meiotic
division
 Meiosis And Genetic Variation:
1) Independent Assortment

Gene for eye

color on large
chromosome

Gene for hair

color on small
chromososme
 Meiosis And Genetic Variation:
2) Crossing Over

Parental Recombinant
chromosome chromosome

Crossing Over reassorts between chromosome

New chromosomes with novel combinations
 Sex and Genetic Variability
 Sex, through meiosis, disrupts existing genetic
combinations by separating homologous chromosomes.
Why disrupting successful combinations? Genetic
variability!
 Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes
produces novel combinations
 Crossing over produces novel chimeric chromosomes
 Syngamy produces new genetic combinations
 Inheritance
 Inheritance is affected by a complex
combination of genetics an environment
 The genetic component includes:
 inheritance of nuclear chromosomes (Mendelian
and Non-mendelian)
○ Mendelian. One gene controls the trait. Follows a
characteristic pattern in a pedigree
○ More than one gene involved. Not a characteristic
pedigree.
 inheritance of extra-chromosomal genetic material
(maternal inheritance)
Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Laws of
Inheritance
Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
First Law: Segregation (separation)
Test Cross
Law of Segregation in Meiosis
Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
Second Law: Independent Assortment
Hypothesis 1. Genes do NOT assort independently

R r

Y y

How many types of gametes

can this plant make?
Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
Second Law: Independent Assortment
Hypothesis 2. Genes DO assort independently

R r

Y y

AND

R r
How many types of gametes
y Y can this plant make?
Let’s cross two of them…..
Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
Second Law: Independent Assortment
Law of Independent Assortment in Meiosis
 Molecular Basis of
Dominant/Recessive Relationship
 Dominant traits are characterized by a “gain of
function” mutation that interferes (masks) with the
normal gene product.
 Recessive traits are characterized by a “loss of
function mutation”. The normal function is still
active.
Genetic Basis Recessive Alleles: Example 1:
Albinism
Genetic Basis Of Dominant Alleles:
Example Oncogenes.
One over-reactive allele is enough.
It will signal regardless of the activation state
of the other allele
Mechanisms of Evolution
 Natural Selection arises from these facts:

 Organisms in a population vary

 The variation may be passed on to offspring
 Not all individuals survive to reproduce, or produce
the same number of surviving offspring
 Individuals with some traits survive and reproduce
better than possessors of other traits
 These individuals pass these advantageous variants
to their offspring
As a result, beneficial heritable variations increase,
and detrimental ones decrease, across generations
Gregor Mendel
 THE MODERN SYNTHESIS
 Darwin. 1859.
 Mendel. 1856-1853.
 Population genetics. 1930.
 Fisher publishes “The genetical theory of Natural
Selection”. Mathematical analysis.
 Dobzhansky, 1937. Modern synthesis puts
together: genetics, paleontology, cell biology,
systematics, ecology
 Microevolution
○ Genetic changes in local populations
 Macroevolution.
○ Broad scale changes seen by paleontologists
Population Genetics: Darwin Meets Mendel

Evolution is a change in the

allelic frequencies in a
population over time
A Gene Pool Is the Totality of Alleles in a Population
Population Genetics Studies Evolution One Gene at the
Time

60 individuals
120 alleles
12 X1
10% of the alleles are X1

What will the

frequency of X1 be
next generation?
 DERIVING THE HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE-A NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
P1 = frequency of allele A1 = 0.7 1. Suppose that the allele
P2 = frequency of allele A2 = 0.3 frequencies in the parental
generation were 0.7 and 0.3.
Gametes
from parent 2. 70% of the gametes in the
generation gene pool carry allele A1 and
30% carry allele A2 .

3. Pick two gametes at

A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A1 A2 A2 random from the gene pool
0.7 x 0.3=0.21 0.3 x 0.7=0.21 to form offspring. Three
0.7 x 0.7 0.3 x 0.3 genotypes are possible.
= 0.49 0.21 + 0.21 = 0.42 = 0.09
Homozygous Heterozygous Homozygous 4. Calculate the frequencies
of these three combinations
of alleles.
Gametes
from 5. When the offspring breed,
offspring imagine that their gametes
generation go into a gene pool.

42% of the gametes

6. Calculate the frequencies
49% of the gametes 9% of the gametes of the two alleles in this
are from A1A2 parents.
are from A1A1 parents. are from A2A2 parents.
All of these carry A1
Half of these carry A1
All of these carry A2 gene pool.
and half carry A2
BEHOLD! The allele frequencies of A1
and A2 have not changed from parent
P1 = frequency of allele A1 = (0.49 + 1/2(0.42)) = (0.49 + 0.21) = 0.7 generation to offspring generation.
P2 = frequency of allele A2 = (1/2(0.42) + 0.09) = (0.21 + 0.09) = 0.3 Evolution has not occurred.

Genotype frequencies will be given by: p12 : 2p1p2 : p22 as long

as all Hardy-Weinberg assumptions are met
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that
both alleles and genotype frequencies in a
population remain constant—that is, they
are in equilibrium—from generation to
generation-unless specific disturbing
influences are introduced.
These disturbing influences are the forces
that drive evolution
Evolutionary forces act on individuals, but
the population is the smallest unit that can
evolve.
4 Mechanisms of evolution
 Mutations
 Small effect, but impact across generations
 Natural selection.
 Differential survival and reproduction
 Allelic/genetic drift
 Random loss of alleles from (small) populations
 Allele/gene flow
 Random movement of alleles among populations