METAL FORMING

Concepts of stress and strain

STRESS AT A POINT Surface Forces
Body Forces

Stress is defined as the internal resistance of a body to the externally

applied force, per unit area.
STRESS
moments of the forces about the z axis
STRAIN
 STRESS AND STRAIN
Forces
Lo Body Forces
Load, P Surface forces

Free Body Diagram

Load, P

L0 +  P   dA

P    dA

 P
e 
L0 A
TRUE STRAIN – ENGINEERING STRAIN
l1  l0 e2 
l2  l1
e1 
l0 l1

l3  l 2
e3 
l2

Engineering strain = change in length/original length

l l e  (e1+e2+e3)
e 3 0
l0
True strain = Summation of all engineering strain from instant to instant
 TRUE STRAIN – ENGINEERING STRAIN
True strain,  = Summation of all engineering strain from instant to instant

 = e1+e2+e3

l1  l0 l2  l1 l3  l2  ..... ln  l
 l0

l1

l2 l
By volume constancy, A0.L0 = A.L
l
dl l
    ln  
 l0   A0 
l0
l   ln  
 A

 l0  l 
  ln     ln 1  e
 l0 
TRUE STRESS- ENGINEERING STRESS
P1 P2 P3 P – Load
A - Area

Engg stress, e = Load/Original area

P1/A0, P2/A0, P3/A0
True stress, t = Load/ instantaneous area
P1/A1, P2/A2, P3/A3

A0 t=P/Ai
A1 A2
A3 t= e (1+e)
TRUE STRAIN – ENGINEERING STRAIN
 0.01 0.10 0.2 0.5 1
e 0.01 0.105 0.22 0.65 1.72

Assume that a rod is extended twice its length. Calculate the engineering
strain and true strain

What must be the final length if the same strain is in compression

Convention Tensile strain = ‘+’ve

compressive strain = ‘-’ve
FORMING PROCESSES
 Shape change
 No volume change

 No mass change

 Sum of the true strain in all the three directions is

Zero

1   2   3  0

Deformed Prove

10 14 1   2   3  0
10 14
10
ENGINEERING STRESS – STRAIN
GRAPH
 TOTAL STRAIN
0 = elastic strain

Total strain?
Total plastic strain = 1- 0 =2

0

2 1 
0

0 = Yield strength
YIELDING CRITERIA
Yielding occurs when the maximum
shear stress reaches the value of the
shear stress in uniaxial tension

Tresca criteria

Von mises criteria

0 
1
2
 
 x   y 2   y   z 2   z   x 2  6  xy 2   yz 2   xz 2 
1
2
 Tensors, defined mathematically, are simply
arrays of numbers, or functions, that transform
according to certain rules under a change of
coordinates.
 Tensors are simply mathematical objects that
can be used to describe physical properties, just
like scalars and vectors.
 Stress is a tensor1 because it describes things
happening in two directions simultaneously. You
can have an xx-directed force pushing along an
interface of constant yy; this would be σxyσxy. If
we assemble all such combinations σijσij,
the collection of them is the stress tensor.
 Perhaps when people say "pressure is internal" they mean the
following. σσ has some nice properties, including being symmetric and
diagonalizable. Diagonalizability means we can transform our coordinates
such that all shear vanishes, at least at a point. But we cannot get rid of
all pressure by coordinate transformations. In fact, the
trace σxx+σyy+σzzσxx+σyy+σzz is invariant under such transformations,
and so we often define the scalar pp as 1/31/3 this sum, even when the
three components are different