KARBONAT

General Characteristics
• Bimodal grain size distribution (sand and mud)
• Organisms are the principle, essentially only source of limestone
• Most modern, and by analogy, most ancient carbonates are primarily
shallow water (<10-20 m) platform deposits, because:
– photosynthesis is enhanced at shallow depths - coral consist of coelentarate in a
syntrophic relationship with red algae (zooxanthellae)
– majority of carbonates form in subtidal to supratidal environments, give rise to
widespread tabular deposits along continental (trailing edge) margins and
epircontinental seas [FIGURE].
– exception to shallow origin are deepwater "oozes" (fine grained limestone made
up of skeletons of organisms such as Globigerina.
• Found in reefs, mounds or banks
• An antipathetic relationship exists between carbonate sediments and
siliciclastic sediments due in large part to the biology of reef-forming
organisms:
– high sedimentation rates increase turbidity, which inhibits photosynthesis by
benthic orgnisms
– gill breathers (such as the coral) get clogged up and die
• Carbonates are composed largely of both calcium and
magnesium carbonate minerals as well as carbon
dioxide. As well, in most carbonate rocks, the silica
composition is quite low. There are three main
sedimentary carbonate minerals: aragonite, calcite, and
dolomite.
• The composition of most carbonates lies somewhere
between calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2.
For example, most contain some magnesium, but not as
much as pure dolomite.
• Carbonate sediment may be formed by biological
processes as well as by physical weathering and erosion;
however, the main control on the formation of these
sediments is chemistry.
The partial pressure of CO2 in the water greatly controls the amount of
carbonate solubility. If the amount of CO2 in the water decreases, the
carbonate equilibrium is altered and precipitation may occur.
THE MINERALS
• The magnesium atoms within calcite randomly substitute
for atoms of calcium.
• In dolomite, layers of calcite molecules alternate with
layers of dolomite. Here, the magnesium and calcium
atoms are at a one-to-one stoichiometric ratio. However,
the proportions of these two constituents can vary.
• Aragonite is a polymorph of calcite that can be
precipitated by both organic and inorganic processes.
Being the main constituent of many invertebrate
skeletons, aragonite is also less stable in most
environments and readily converts to calcite.
AS A REFLECTION OF ENVIRONMENT
The physical and chemical conditions of the environment in which calcites,
dolomites and aragonites are formed are reflected in their composition. Several
factors control the crystal habits and crystal sizes of these minerals, two of
which being the salinity as well as the ratio of magnesium to calcium of the
solution.
Carbonate rocks are those in which the matrix and
framework are composed of greater than 50% carbonate
minerals. Unlike silicilastic sediments, where structures
and textures reflect the physical factors in the
depositional environment, the structures and textures of
carbonate rocks commonly reflect intrabasinal, biological
factors.
The source for carbonate sediments is almost exclusively
biological. Although carbonates form in colder water and
more specialized settings such as 'hot' springs and
caves, most thick buildups represent high organic
accumulation in shallow, warm seas in areas removed
from significant siliciclastic input .
These shallow marine areas where carbonate sediments
are created by calcareous organisms are referred to as
the "carbonate factory"
In addition to temperature, sea level and sedimentation
rate play important roles in carbonate accumulation
The combination of low detrital sedimentation rates, high
sea levels and a more southerly geographic position
resulted in widespread deposition of carbonate
sediments all over the North American craton. For
example, the Devonian reefs of Alberta are of broad
regional extent and host a large percentage of Canada's
petroleum resources.
In contrast, although sea level was high during the
Cretaceous Period, and global temperatures were
warmer than today, high sedimentation rates associated
with Cordilleran mountain building resulted in fewer thick
carbonate buildups in North America
I. Carbonates common in tropical zones (within 30° of
equator) and in some lakes. Results from direct
chemical precipitation and, strongly, from the
influence of biologic processes.
II. Chemistry: the key here is that any process that
removes CO2 (gas) from normal seawater (pH=8.4)
tends to drive up pH, encouraging deposition of
carbonate. Such processes include: increasing
temperature, evaporation, and pH.
III. Most carbonate comes from growth and death of
critters who make their hard parts out of carbonate.
Over 90% of carbonates formed in modern
environments are thought to be biological in origin
and form under marine conditions. Distribution of
most carbonate is directly controlled by
environmental parameters favorable for the growth of
the calcium carbonate secreting organisms. These
parameters include temperature, salinity, substrate,
and presence/absence of siliciclastics.
IV. Sedimentation Rates:
Modern: reefs: 3+ m/ka, open sea/lagoon: ~1m/ka
Ancient average: 0.4 m/ka
So: although they are deposited fast when critters are
alive and thriving, there must be a lot of time that they
don't grow, that is critters are inhibited by things like
salinity, etc (mentioned above).
V. Classification Schemes:
• A. Bob Folk - emphasizes what carbonate looks like in thin
section and what sorts of particles are seen. The presence
or absence of carbonate mud (micrite) likely reflects
secondary, diagenetic, change in chemistry.
• B. Bob Dunham - cares less about the particles and
interprets the % mud to reflect environmental conditions
during deposition
VI. Carbonate Environments -
Textures
Textures of carbonate rocks are extremely
variable. Textures can vary from those
similar to clastic sediments, showing
characteristic grain sizes, sorting, and
rounding, to those produced by chemical
precipitation. In carbonates the matrix
can range from fine grained carbonate
mud to crystalline calcite or dolomite. But
carbonates can also show textures derived
from the growth of living organisms.
Grains in Carbonate Rocks - The grains that occur in
carbonate rocks are called allochemical particles or
allochems.
They are grains often precipitated by organisms that
formed elsewhere and became included in the carbonate
sediment. Because calcite and aragonite, the main
biochemical precipitates, are soft and soluble in water,
the distance of transport is usually not very far.
Unlike clastic sediments, the degree of rounding and
sorting of the grains may not be a reflection of the
energy of the transporting medium, but may be
biologically determined.
For example some organisms produce particles that already
have a rounded shape. If many of the same size
organisms die at the same place, then the grains may be
well sorted.
• Grains found in carbonate rocks are as follows:
– Whole or broken skeletons of organisms
(fossils). These may range in size from gravel to fine
sand, depending on the organism and the degree to
which the grains are broken by waves or during
transport.

– Ooids. These are spherical sand sized particles that

have a concentric or radial internal structure. The
central part of each particle consists of a grain of
quartz or other carbonate particle surrounded by thin
concentric layers of chemically precipitated
calcite. The layers or coatings are formed in agitated
waters as the grain rolls around
- Peloids. These are spherical aggregates of
microcrystalline calcite of coarse silt to fine sand
size. Most appear to be fecal pellets from burrowing
benthic organisms. As these organisms burrow through
the muddy carbonate-rich sediment, they ingest material
in search of nutritional organic compounds resulting in
waste products containing microcrystalline calcite. The
peloids are much easier seen in thin section than in hand
specimen because of their small size.
- Limeclasts. These are fragments of earlier formed
limestone or partially lithified carbonate sediment. Most
are intraclasts, originating within the basin of
deposition. They may be pieces of partially cemented
carbonate mud that were ripped from the seafloor by
storms. Some appear to be fragments of partially
cemented carbonate mud that originated in intertidal
mudflats. Some may also be pieces of limestone carried
into the basin from nearby carbonate outcrops.
• Matrix- The matrix of carbonate rocks consists of
either fine grained carbonate mud, called micrite. Or
coarser grained calcite crystals formed during
diagenesis, called sparite.
– The micrite results from recrystallization of carbonate
mud during diagenesis or from direct precipitation of
calcite, and causes lithification of the sediment. The
micrite gives the dull opaque appearance of most
limestones as seen in hand specimen. If the rock
consists entirely of fine-grained mud matrix, it implies
deposition in a low energy environment just like in
siliclastic mudstones. Some of the mud may start out
as aragonite needles 5 to 10 mm in length produced
by calcareous algae. But, again this becomes
recrystallized to a microspar 5 to 15 mm in diameter
during diagenesis.
– Larger sparry calcite matrix results from diagenesis in
the same way that calcite cement originates in
sandstones.
• Insoluble Residues - While minor amounts of clay
minerals and quartz occur in limestones, most of the
insoluble residues, (so called because they do not
dissolve in HCl) are grains of nodules of chert. Such
chert mostly originates from the shells of silica secreting
organisms. These include diatoms, radiolarians, and
some sponges. Individual grains of chert result from
recrystallization of the shells of these organisms. Chert
nodules can range in size from centimeters to meters in
length. Many nodules are concentrated along bedding
planes and probably resulted from dissolution of the
siliceous debris and reprecipitation of the microcrystalline
quartz at centers of nucleation located along zones of
migration of the fluids, such as along bedding planes.
Structures
Since most limestones are formed by clastic processes, many of the same types
of structures observed in siliciclastic rocks also occur in limestones.

• Current-Generated Structures. Structures like cross-bedding, ripple

marks, dunes, graded bedding, and imbricate bedding are common in
carbonate rocks, although they may not be as evident as in siliclastic rocks
because of the lack of contrasting colors of individual beds in
carbonates. Since many shells of organisms have curved outlines in cross-
section (brachipods, pelecypods, ostracods, and trilobites, especially), when
the organism dies it may settle to the bottom with the outline being
concave downward, and latter become filled with carbonate mud. When
such features occur they can be used as top/bottom indicators.

• Lamination. The most common type of lamination in carbonate rocks is

produced by organisms, in particular blue-green algae that grow in the tidal
environment. These organism grow as filaments and produce mats by
trapping and binding microcrystalline carbonates, as incoming tides sweep
over the sand. This leads to the formation of laminated layers that consist
of layers of organic tissue interbedded with mud. In ancient limestones,
the organic matter has usually been removed as a result of decay, leaving
cavities in the rock separated by layers of material that was once
mud. These cavities are called fenestrae (for a photo, see Figure 16-14,
page 305, in Blatt & Tracy).
• Stylolites. Stylolites are irregular surfaces that
result from pressure solution of large amounts of
carbonate. In cross-section they have a saw
tooth appearance with the stylolites themselves
being made of insoluble residues or insoluble
organic material. Some studies have suggested
that the stylolites represent anywhere from 25%
to as much as 90% of missing rock that has
been dissolved and carried away by dissolution.
Carbonate Classification by Vuggy Pore space
Vuggy Pore Space

• Vuggy porosity is pore space that is within grains or

crystals or that is significantly larger than grains or
crystals; that is, pore space that is not interparticle.
• Vuggy porosity is divided into two classes based on the
manner in which the vugs are connected.
– Separate vugs are interconnected only through the interparticle
porosity. Common examples are as leached grains and fossil
chambers.
– Touching vugs form a interconected pore system of significant
extent. Common examples are solution enlarged fractures and
large, irregular cavities. Fracture porosity is included as a type of
touching-vug porosity to be inclusive
Carbonate Classification by Interparticle
Pore Space
Carbonate Cements
This thin-section photomicrograph from
the Capitan Fm. of the Permian Reef
Complex contains isopachous calcite
cements (stained red). Isopachous
cements were precipitated in a marine
environment.
This slide is classified as a
pelbiosparite/grainstone and contains
meniscus cements. Meniscus cements
are found only at grain contacts and are
characteristic of vadose cementation
since they form where water films are
trapped between the grains. Again, this
rock has undergone extensive
diagenesis and is now mostly dolomite.
Originally, cements were mainly
aragonite with some high-Mg calcite and
formed botryoidal crusts lining small as
well as large pores. This a
biolithite/boundstone consisting of blue-
green algae, peloids, calcispheres and
foraminfers. This thin section contains
pendent or microstalactitic cements
within the fenestral pores. Again, these
cements are characteristic of vadose
environments
This thin-section photomicrograph (plane
polarized light) of a pisolite-shoal facies
shows spectacular bladed cement crystals
(now replaced by dolomite) with "square-
tipped rays". Such crystal terminations have
been used to infer an originally aragonite
composition for the cements
is dolomitized biolithite/boundstone. It
contains pisolites, peloids and blue/green?
algae. Near the bottom of the slide there is a
zone of calcite cement that is called radiaxial
fibrous
This slide contains syntaxial overgrowth
cements around the echinoderm
fragments. The overgrowths are complexly
zoned from slightly ferroan to non-ferroan
to ferroan and back to non-ferroan. This
zoning reflects the variable pore water
chemistries that moved through these units
with time. is biosparite/packstone
consisting mainly of trepostome, fenestrate
and other bryozoans and echinoderms.
Within the zooecia of the trepostome
bryozoans you should be able to find
another type of internal sediment, micrite
silt. Micrite silt is chemically precipitated
(probably with the aid of bacteria) bundles
of micrite.
This thin section photomicrograph
(plane-polarized light; Alizarin-
potassium ferricyanide stained section)
is from the Permian (Guadalupian) Tosi
Chert), Park City Fm. at Anchor Dam,
Big Horn Basin, WY.
This photomicrograph contains
complexly zoned calcite fills which post-
date silicification of the original
evaporites. This recrystallized limestone
consists of finely crystalline, euhedral
dolomite crystals encased in coarsely
crystalline, poikolotopic calcite crystals.
Make sure you look at this section with
crossed polarizers to see how the
calcite encases the dolomite crystals.
Carbonate Rocks
The carbonate rocks make up 10 to 15% of
sedimentary rocks. They largely consist of two
types of rocks.
• Limestones which are composed mostly of
calcite (CaCO3) or high Mg calcite
[(Ca,Mg)CO3], and

• Dolostones which are composed mostly of

dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]
Limestone can be easily recognized in hand specimen or
outcrop because of its high solubility in HCl. A drop of
such acid placed on the rock will cause it to fizz due to
the generation of CO2 gas.
A dolostone, on the other hand, will not fizz until a fine
powder is made from the rock or mineral. Also,
dolostones tend to weather to a brownish color rock,
whereas limestones tend to weather to a white or gray
colored rock. The brown color of dolostones is due to
the fact that Fe occurs in small amounts replacing some
of the Mg in dolomite.
Carbonate Depositional
Environments
The principal carbonate depositional environments are as
follows:
• Carbonate Platforms and Shelves. Warm shallow seas
attached the continents, or in the case of epiric seas,
partially covering the continents, are ideal places for
carbonate deposition. Other shelves occur surrounding
oceanic islands after volcanism has ceased and the island
has been eroded (these are called atolls). Carbonate
platforms are buildups of carbonate rocks in the deeper
parts of the oceans on top of continental blocks left behind
during continent - continent separation.
Reef building organisms from the framework of most of
these carbonate buildups.

• Tidal Flats. Tidal flats are areas that flood during high tides
and are exposed during low tides. Carbonate sands carried
in by the tides are cemented together by carbonate
secreting organisms, forming algal mats and stromatolites.
• Deep Ocean. Carbonate deposition can only occur in
the shallower parts of the deep ocean unless organic
productivity is so high that the remains of organisms are
quickly buried. This is because at depths between 3,000
and 5,000 m (largely dependent on latitude - deeper
near the equator and shallower nearer the poles) in the
deep oceans the rate of dissolution of carbonate is so
high and the water so undersaturated with respect to
calcium carbonate, that carbonates cannot accumulate.
This depth is called the carbonate compensation
depth (CCD). The main type of carbonate deposition in
the deep oceans consists of the accumulation of the
remains of planktonic foraminifera to form a carbonate
ooze.
• Non-marine Lakes. Carbonate deposition can occur in
non-marine lakes as a result of evaporation, in which
case the carbonates are associated with other evaporite
deposits, and as a result of organisms that remove CO2
from the water causing it to become oversaturated with
respect to calcite.

• Hot Springs. When hot water saturated with calcium

carbonate reaches the surface of the Earth at hot
springs, the water evaporates and cools resulting in the
precipitation of calcite to form a type of limestone called
travertine.
Carbonate
depositional systems
forming in the
geologic past, and in
modern settings, fall
into three general
types: ramp margins,
rimmed margins and
isolated platforms.
• pronounced break in slope
• presences of nearly continuous rim or barrier along
platform edge
• the barrier is a wave resistant structure consisting
of either a reef or skeletal, oolitic sand shoals
• landward of rim/barrier is a low energy "lagoonal"
area of variably restricted circulation
• lagoonal area commonly grades landward into tidal
flat
• gently sloping (<1°) platform
• may be slight shelf break
• no pronounced reef trend, although
discontinuous carbonate sand shoals
may be present
• may have high energy beach and
skeletal, oolitic sand shoals.
• "Bahama type" - derived from
modern analogy with Bahama
platform
• shallow platform 10's to 100's km wide
offshore of shallow continental shelves
• surrouned by deep water (several 100's
metres to few km deep)
• May have either gently sloping margin or
more steeply sloping margin
Dolostones
Dolostones are carbonate rocks composed almost entirely
of dolomite - (Ca,Mg)CO3. Although there used to be a
common perception that the abundance of dolostones
increased with age of the rock, it is now recognized that
although no primary dolomite bearing rocks are being
directly precipitated in modern times, dolostones have
formed throughout geologic time. This is true despite the
fact that modern sea water is saturated with respect to
dolomite. Still, most dolostones appear to result from
diagenetic conversion of calcite or high-Mg calcite to
dolomite, after primary deposition of the original calcium
carbonate bearing minerals.
Two mechanisms of dolomitization of limestones have been
proposed based on field and laboratory studies.

• Evaporative Reflux. This mechanism involves the

evaporation of seawater to form a brine that precipitates
gypsum. After precipitation of gypsum, the brine is both
enriched in Mg relative to Ca and has a higher
density. If the brine then enters the groundwater
system and moves downward into buried
limestones. This Mg-rich brine then reacts with the
calcite in the limestone to produce dolomite.

• Mixing of Seawater and Meteoric Water. This

mechanism involves the mixing of groundwater derived
from the surface with saline groundwater beneath the
oceans. Dolomitization is thought to occur where the
two groundwater compositions mix with each in the
porous and permeable limestone within a few meters of
the surface.
What is a reef

• coral reefs owe their origins to the biological

secretion of calcium carbonate by living organisms,
• they are rigid structures that stand above the
surrounding sea floor,
• they exert some control on local oceanographic
processes.
LANJUTANNYA MINGGU DEPAN