Philosophy in the 13th

Century until Present

Oleh :
Afifah Nur Aini
Hilyatul Azizah
Rispah Hamzah
Islam Philosophers
in Middle Ages
The Periods of the Middle Ages
1. Patristic Period
a. The Beginnings of Christiany
b. Agustine’ Phylosophy
c. The Scholastic Period
•Early scholastic period (9th-12th century)
•Peak Period of Scholastic development (13 th
Century)
•The Final Scholastic period (14th-15th Century)
•Islamic Scholastic period
Philosophical Figures in the Middle Ages
Ibnu Rusyid
(Islamic Philosopher in Western Islamic World)

• Ibn Rusyd ialah Muhamad Ibn Muhamad Ibn Rusyd

• Cordova pada 520 H/1126 M- 1198 M
• A shapanish (Andalusia) Philosopher
• Tahafut al-Tahafut
• Islamic law, medicine, and Islamic philosopher
• as judge In several cities and a palace doctor
• Bidayat alMujtahid wa Nihayah al-
Muqtashid (fqh),
• Fash al-Maqal fi ma bayna al-Hikmah,
• wa Shari’ah min al-Ittishal (kalam),
• Manahij al-Adillah f al-Aqaid al-Millah
(kalam)
• Tahafut al-Tahafut (Philosophy)
• al-Kulliyat (Medical).
Ibnu Kaldun
• He was born in Tunisia on May 27, 1332 AD (1 Ramadhan
732 H)
• Historian and Father of Islamic Sociology is from Tunisia
• Ibn Khaldun put forward a new idea which states that the
human social system can change along with the ability of
their thinking patterns, the state of the earth around them,
the influence of climate, food, emotions and the human soul
itself.
• From an economic point of view, Ibn Khaldun advances the
theory of values ​and relationships with labor, introduces the
division of labor, helps open marketing, realizes the dynamic
impression of demand and the capital of sales and profits.
• The remarkable work of Ibn Khaldun (Mukaddimah) has
earned him the title of Prolegomena or the introduction of
various human developmental sciences among Western
scholars
As a historian and philosopher, he focused his
attention on writing and teaching. That's when the
great work was born from his hands, namely:
1. Al-Ibrar wa Diwan Al-Mubtada’ wa Al-Khabar fi
Ayyamal Al-‘Arab wa Al-Ajam wa al-Barbar
2. Muqaddimah (which is actually the opening of the
book of Al-Ibrar)
3. At-Ta’rif bi Ibn Khaldun
4. Lubabal Al-Muhassal Afkar Usul Ad-Din
Ibnu Taimiyah
• The real name of Ibn Taimiyyah is Taqiyuddin Abu al
Abbas Ibn Abd al Halim ibn al Imam Majduddin Abil
Barakat Abd al Salam bin Muhammad bin Abdullah bin
Abi Qasim Muhammad bin Khuddlarbin Ali bin
Taimiyyah alHarrani al Hambali.
• Born on Monday 10th of Rabi'ul Awal year 661 H/January
22, 1263 AD in the city of Harran. Sham, exactly on the
island of Ibnu Amr between the Tigris and Eupraht rivers
• dividing Tawheed into three, namely Tawheed
Rububiyyah, Tawheed Uluhiyyah and Tawheed al Asma
'wa al Shifa
• Ibn Taymiyah's method of thinking in detail can be seen in
his Majmu 'al-Fatawa (collection of fatwas). In the field of
law, ibnu taimiyah cling to the salaf. The method of
thinking is the method of salaf that comes from the Qur'an
and hadith. Therefore, his opinions are full of the Qur'an
and hadith
 The books produced
1. Tafsir wa’Ulum al-Qur’an
• At-Tibyan fi Nuzuhu al-Qur’an
• Tafsir surah An-Nur
• Tafsir Al-Mu’udzatain
• Muqaddimah fi ‘Ilm al-Tafir
2. Fiqh dan Ushul Fiqh
• Kitab fi Ushul Fiqh
• Kitab Manasiki al-Haj
• Kitab al-Farq al-Mubin baina al-Thlaq wa
al Yamin
3. Tasawwuf
• Al-Faraq bainaAulia al-Rahman wa Aulia
al-Syaithan
• b.Abthalu Wahdah al-Wujud
• c.Al-Tawasul wa al-Wasilah
• Risalah fi al-Salma wa al-Raqsi
• kitab Taubah
• Al-‘Ubudiyyah
• Darajat al-Yaqin
4. Ushulu al Din wa al Ra’du ‘Ala al Mutakallimin
• Risalah fi Ushulu al-Din
• Kitab al-Iman
• Al-Furqan baina al-Haq wa al-Bathl
• Syarah al-‘Aqidah al-Ashfihiniyah
• Jawabu Ahli al-Ilmi wa al-Iman
• Risalah fi al-Ihtijaj bi al-Qadr
• Shihah Ushul Mazhab
• Majmua Tauhid
5.Al Ra’du ‘Ala Ashab al Milal
• a.Al-Jawab al-Shahih Liman Badala Dina Al-Haq
• b.Al-Ra’du ‘Ala al-Nashara
• c. Takhjil Ahli al-Injil
 Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab
• Abu Abdullah ibn AbdAl-Wahab ibn Sulaiman bin Ali ibn Muhammad bin
Rashid at-Tamimi.
• He was born in 1703 M / 1115 H in Uyainah, Najd, Saudi Arabia.
• He and his followers named his group with al-Muwahidun (supporters of
monotheism).
• Whereas wahab is the nickname given by their enemies, which are also used
by the Europeans and finally become commonplace.
• Muhammad bin Abd Wahab's purgatory framework departs from an
understanding of tawheed to God. He divided the two into two, namely
Tawheed uluhiyah and tauhid rububiyah.

“There are two core teachings. First, return to the original teaching. The point is that the teachings of Islam
are embraced and practiced by the Prophet Muhammad, Companions, and the tabi'in. the two principles
relating to monotheism. According to him, people who worship other than Allah have become polytheists
and may be killed. Things that include shirk are asking for help no longer to God but to the shaykh, wali,
or supernatural powers”
The basic principles of Muhammad bin Abd Wahab's teachings are based on the teachings of Ibn Taymiyyah
and the Hanbali School, namely:

The absolute lordship of the absolute

1. Return to the true teachings of Islam, as set forth in the Qur'an and the Hadith

2. It can not be separated from the beliefs of action, such as prayer and charity

3. Believing that the Koran is not a human creation

4. Real belief in the Qur'an and hadith

5. Believe in destiny

6. Condemning all wrong views and actions

 In 1804 and 1806, this Wahabi movement was almost faded because the Ottoman empire king, sultan
Mahmud II, gave the order to Muhammad Ali in Egypt, in order to break the Wahabi movement.
However, it does not mean that Wahhabi teachings are also weakening. Apparently, the teachings were
spread to various countries such as India, Sudan, Libya, and Indonesia. In Saudi Arabia itself Wahabi
movement began to rise again at the beginning of the 20th century. His advocate, Abdul Aziz Ibn Sa'ud,
was able to occupy Mecca in 1924, a year later also Madinah and Jiddah. Since then Wahhabi political
forces and forces have a strong position in Arabia.

“Thus, it can be seen that the flow of Wahabi movement is firmer and
louder than Ibn Taymiyya's movement in terms of jihad fi sabilillah
especially against the heresy and khurafat scholars”
The Decline Period
of Christianity
 THE DARK AGES (476–1500 AD)
• Church had infinite power, not only in religous matter, but also in
politics and science matters.
• Scientists were oppressed and under watch. Speaking out theories
that contradicted the teachings from church could lead to
imprisonment, punishment or even execution.

Nicolaus Copernicus Galileo Galilei Descrates Giordano Bruno

Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition Army
 THE DARK AGES (476–1500 AD)
• The peak of the church’s infinite power was the selling of indulgence (a
way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins).
This suggested that the rich could buy their way into Heaven while the
poor could not.
 CHURCH REFORMATION

THE CAUSES: THE DOCTRINAL UNITY OF THE

1. Bribery among the religious
leaders  Pope Alexander VI.
2. The greed and scandalous lives of
the clergy.
3. The selling of indulgence to make
profit.
4. Ordinary people knew very little
about Christianity due to the
Catholic Mass was in Latin.
REFORMERS:
1. Bible Only (Sola Scriptura)
2. Christ Only (Solo Christo)
3. Grace Only (Sola Gratia)
4. Faith Only (Sola Fide)
5. God's Glory Only (Soli Deo Gloria)
 CHURCH REFORMATION

LUTHER WAS AGAINST:

1. the corruption and luxurious life
in the church,
2. the authority that the Pope and
church had over redemption and
purgatory,
3. the prohibition of clerical
Martin Luther;
marriage,
a pastor and professor at the University
4. and the doctrine of the merits of of Wittenberg, nailed his 95 Theses on
the saints. the gate of Wittenberg Church in 1517
THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR

• The war between Catholic and Protestant lasted

for 30 years (1618-1648) and involved many
countries in Europe.
• The war was caused by the decision of the
newly-elected Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand
II of Bohemia, to impose religious uniformity in
his empire.
• Even though the protestant objected,
Ferdinand’s refusal to tolerate led to the war.
THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR
The horrific
depiction
of the war
THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR
• The war ended with the Treaty of
Westphalia in 1648.
• Among the negative impact on the
people of Europe (disease, famine,
battle losses), there were some positive
impact, such as:
• the increase in religious freedom,
• the equality between catholic and
protestant in the face of the law,
• and the separation of church and
state affairs.
 THE EMERGENCE OF ATHEISM
• The trauma caused by the previous war of religions push people into
thinking that it was better to be an atheist.
• Later in 1830s, Karl Marx began to view religion as an "opiate"
exploited by the ruling class to give false hope to the working class. In
the end, Marx rejected the existence of religion.

• Marx has three reasons for disliking religion:

1. It is irrational.
2. It renders human servile and more amenable to accepting the
status quo.
3. It is hyprocritical.
European Renaissance
 Renaissance Era
The Renaissance is a period of history that
reached its peak approximately in the year
1500 or around the 15-16 M.
"Renaissance" comes from French language.
Renaissance meaning of "Birth" or "Rebirth." The rebirth
of classical culture, especially ancient Greek culture and
ancient Roman culture.
This period is characterized by a brilliant life in the field of art
(painting, sculpture), music, thought, and literature that exclude
Europe from medieval intellectual darkness.

Born many scientists in certain fields.

Clothing at this time reflects one's social status. They show

wealth through the clothing they wear

The nobles wear brightly colored clothes with gold thread

embroidery, feathers, and other knick-knacks and elaborate models
Example of the noble dress in
Renaissance era
Renaissance Figures
Field of art and culture

Leonardo da
Vinci
Field of Explorer

Christoper Colombus (1451-

1506) and Ferdinand Magellan
(1480-1521)
 Field of Science
Galileo Galilei (1546-1642)

Nicolaus copernicus (1478-1543)

 1. Humanism

In the Middle Ages, humans were deemed less valued as human

beings. Truth is measured by the size of the church (christian),
not according to the measure made by man. Humanism requires
that the measure should be human. Because humans have the
ability to think, then humanism considers human beings able to
manage themselves and the world
 2. Rationalism

Rationalism is a philosophical philosophy that

says reason (akal) is the most important tool in
acquiring knowledge
 3. Empirisme

Empiricism as opposite to rationalism holds

that knowledge is gained from experience by
means of observation / sensing both.
Experience is a fundametal factor, and is the
source of human knowledge.
 4. Materialisme
• This idea was pioneered by LAMETTRIE (1709-1751). According
to him, humans are none other than machines as well as
animals, so there is no difference between humans and
animals
• He tried to prove that a soulless (substance) might live, while
a soul without matter could not exist, the heart of a frog
expelled from the body of a frog still pulsed for a few seconds
(live Lamettrie word), whereas there could be no frog , if there
is no body.
 The Positive Impact of Renaissance Century

• There is a change in the field of religion and science

• The Renaissance has established a trade society progression
• Growing freedom, independence, and individual independence
• Renaissance has spawned figures of change in Europe
 Negative Impact of Renaissance Century

• At this time in addition to the revival also happened moral

depravity
• The emergence of an issue called Iconoclastic Controversy
 Heliocentric Theory
Galileo Galilei (1546-1642)

Nicolaus copernicus (1478-1543)

 Heliocentric Theory
• Heliocentrism is the theory that
"the Sun becomes the center
of the universe". The word is
derived from the Greek
language, namely (Helios = Sun,
and Center = Center)
• This theory is contrary to the
theory of Geocentrism, which
states that the earth as the
center of the universe
• The theory of Heliocentrism
was proposed by Nicolas
Copernicus in the 14 century,
but at that time the theory was
strongly opposed by the church.
• He appreciated his thoughts
in the form of a book called
“De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestium (Tentang
Revolusi Benda-benda
Langit), and he decided to
publish it. After it was
published, exactly 1543 M.
When the sample of his book
was shown to him,
Copernicus breathed his last.
 Heliocentric Theory
• Later research on this theory was
reinforced by Galileo in the 16 M
century by making telescopes.
• Meanwhile, his support for
Copernicus's theories led him to
encounter churches who
opposed him all out. The clash of
churches reached its peak in
1616 M
• in 1632 M Galileo published a
book entitled “Dialogue
concerrning the two chief
systems of the world”. It was the
winter, he was summoned to
Rome to face the Inquisition
Committee of the Roman
Catholic Church.
• Then, he was brought to
an open court which
forced him to repeal the
theories he had
published. His work is
listed in the list of books
prohibited by the
Catholic church. Galileo
was ordered to
permanently no longer
talk about the earth that
surrounds the sun.
Copernicus Monument in Warsawa,
Poalandia sculpted by Bertel
Thorvaldsen.
The Decline Period
of Islam
 Factors that cause the decline of Islam
a. Internal Factors
1. Disunity and the Absence of political
unity
2. A sense of complacency and strife and
thinking
3. Cultivate a luxurious lifestyle and spree
among rulersTo cultivate a luxurious
lifestyle and to splurge among rulers,

b. External Factors
1.The Mongol attack that destroyed
several Islamic countries.
2.The occurrence of crusades,
3.The occurrence of natural disasters and
the outbreak of disease in the presence
of problems like this must disrupt the
course of a government.
 Condition of Islam in Decline
The condition of the Islamic ummah in the period of Islamic decline was on the outline of Islamic
civilization at that time in almost all regions experiencing vacuum, the forward movement as in the time of the
caliphate of dynasty Umayyad and abbasiyah dynasty suddenly stopped, even on some sectors collapsed. In other
words, Muslims really experience a setback on the social cultural aspect.

The Decline of Science and Islamic Phylosopic

In the 13th century CE, after the Mongol invasion of Baghdad and the process of transition of power
from Islam to Christianity in Spain and the end of the crusade, practically Islamic culture at that time almost all
Islamic regions experienced a vacuum. The forward movement that the rate suddenly stalled even in some
sectors collapsed.
The underlying factor of the vacuum is that the Arab elements that became the Islamic culture at the
beginning of its growth and in its development phase were marginalized by the Persian and Turkish elements.
The Persians began to revive their language and culture and grasped the Arab culture as it appeared in the
kingdom of Bani Buwaihi al-Parisi
Factors that caused the decline of science and philosophy in the Islamic world
1. The collapse of three great kingdoms namely, Safawiah in Persia, Ottoman in Turkey and Mughal in India.
2. The looting of Baghadad by Hulagu Khan in the XIII century AD has closed the glory of Islam for centuries
3. The internal influence of al-Ghazali concerning the book "al-Tahafut al-Falasifah".
4. The influence of Greek philosophy with its deductive method and Aristi's logic that depart from primary
Silogism containing weaknesses. This is the source of Islamic thought, no longer derived of the Qur'an
5. Madzhab al-Syafi'i (madhhab fiqih) is dominant and less concerned with research and thought.
6. Strict conditions that must be fulfilled in berijtihad that cause difficulties in berijtihad, so it is very rare for
people to do activities of berijtihad.
7. The spread of Sufism and mysticism with his zuhud teachings. 8. The ruling worries that science and
philosophy are progressing, the more intelligent people will be. Thus the power of the ruler will always be
disturbed
 Philosophy in the
19th and 20th Century
Charles Darwin (1809-82)
Early Years
• Darwin was born in
the little town of
Shrewsbury, England,
12 February 1809.
• Here he is at the age
of 7th. As you can
see, he was
interested in plants
(and animals) from
the youngest age.
His grandfather, Erasmus His father, Robert Darwin, was
Darwin. a doctor and his mother
Susannah died when he was 8.
• Darwin’s wife, Emma
Wedgewood.
• She was a devout Christian.
• They married in 1839.

Charles and his son Leonard
Darwin
• Annie Darwin, one of Darwin’s
daughters, died at the age of 10
• Darwin was devastated by her death.
• This may have been one reason for
the loss of his Christian faith (two
other of Darwin’s children died
before the age of 3)
• At first Charles pursued medical studies at Edinburgh, Scotland but he found it
boring and gruesome. He could not stand the sight of blood.
• His father then signed him up at Cambridge for a Bachelor’s program in
preparation for a career as a parson.
 Christ’s College Cambridge where Darwin studied for a few
years. He spent much of the time learning about natural history
and natural theology.
• Suddenly, Darwin was offered a 5 year trip around the world to be the naturalist
aboard the HMS Beagle.
• After friends convinced his father, he began the epic trip that would change the
world in 1831.
The Voyage of the Beagle

Captain Robert Fitzroy, RN (1805-65)

of the HMS Beagle.
The Voyage of The Beagle
The HMS Beagle entering Tierra del Fuego
• Some of the natives of
Tierra del Fuego (southern
tip of South America)
Captain Fitzroy had
encountered on his first
voyage to South America.
• Darwin was shocked at
the “primitiveness” of the
people.
• Darwin approaching
Charles Island,
Galapagos (above).
• Various shell shapes of
tortoises on various
Galapagos Islands lead
Darwin to natural
selection theory
(amongst other
evidence).
 Discovering
Evolution

• Notes from one of Darwin’s

Notebooks during Beagle voyage
and his first evolutionary tree.
Notice the “I think” at the top.
• Darwin saw that big geological
changes had occurred and
realized species had to change
to match this change in
environment.
Discovering Natural Selection
• Already famous for his trip and his
book on it, Darwin continued his
search for a how of evolution and
came upon Malthus’ book, On
Population:
• In October 1838…I happened to read for
amusement Malthus on Population, and being
well prepared to appreciate the struggle for
existence which everywhere goes on from
long-continued observation of the habits of
animals and plants, it at once struck me that
under these circumstances favourable
variations would tend to be preserved, and
unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The
result of this would be the formation of new
species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory
by which to work... (Darwin, Autobiography)
 Discovering Natural Selection
• As he, says, he finally had a theory to explain how evolution is
possible.
• But he hesitated to publish. He wanted to compile huge
amounts of evidence and perhaps was concerned about the
reaction his theory would provoke (including on Emma).
• However….
• Alfred Russell Wallace developed the exact same theory as
Darwin and prompted Darwin to publish his Origin of Species
sooner than he would have liked (1859).
Darwin’s Death
• Darwin died in 1882,
lauded as one of the
greatest scientists in
history, even if not all
accepted his theory.
• He was buried at
Westminster Abbey,
the famous Church.
EINSTEIN’S
RELATIVITY

THEORY
19th century 20th century
1864 1905
Maxwell’s Einstein’s
discovery theory of
relativity
CLASSICAL RELATIVITY
The base was laid by Galileo,
then Newton perfected it.

“
There is no such thing
as absolute motion or
absolute rest.
Objects move relative
to each other.
CLASSICAL RELATIVITY
The base was laid by Galileo,
then Newton perfected it.

“
There is no such thing
as absolute motion or
absolute rest.
Objects move relative
to each other.
 MAXWELL’S DISCOVERY
In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell showed
that light must be a combination of
electric and magnetic field.

“ Light is an electromagnetic
wave that moved through
empty space with a speed
of 300,000 km/s.
 26-year-old Albert
Maxwell’s
Relative
speed of
Einstein accepted both
motion
light theories, but restated:
“Any person moving at
a constant velocity will
observe the same
laws of physics that
a stationary person
Which one observes.”
is true?
According to Maxwell, light always
moves at the velocity of 300,000 km/s. RESOLUTION
Since the speed of light is part of the
According to classical relativity, there is laws of physics, all observers will
no absolute velocity. It depends on the measure the same speed of light,
observers and their motion relative to
the source of the light.
regardless of their state of motion.
What is so revolutionary
about Einstein’s theory of
relativity? (Part 1)
The theory broke the traditional
understanding of time as a constant
entity, and prove that time is
different for different observers.

It predicts that someone who is

moving so fast at nearly the speed
of light will experience time more
slowly than people on earth. This
theory is called time dilation.
What is so revolutionary
about Einstein’s theory of
relativity? (Part 2)
Relativity affects, not only time, but
length as well.
Any moving object is shortened along
the direction of the motion. This
theory is called length contraction.
The dimensions of space and time
work together to ensure that the
speed of light is always the same.
Einstein called it the spacetime.
What is so revolutionary about Einstein’s
theory of relativity? (Part 3)
With the newly-thought four-dimensional
field called spacetime, Einstein proposed
a new understanding of how gravity works
that Newton was not able to explain.
• The spacetime is warped and
stretched by heavy objects, like
planets and stars.
This discovery of how gravity
• The warping of spacetime
works from Einstein’s point of
creates what we feel as gravity.
view is later called the
• Earth is kept in orbit not general theory of relativity.
because of the sun reaches out
and grabs hold of it as Newton’s
theory, but simply because it
follows curves in the spacetime
caused by the sun’s mass.
• Earth does not fall to the bent
spacetime because it is in
constant movement.
What has Einstein’s theory of relativity contributed
for the development of science and technology?
• Expanded the classical relativity theory.
• Supported Maxwell’s theory about the behavior of
light and cement it as the cosmic speed limit.
• Proved that motion and time are relative.
• Introduced new understanding of how gravity
works since Newton’s theory.
• Allowed GPS to accurately
pinpoint our location on earth
by putting into account the
relativistic effect on the satelites.
 Relativity in Al-Qur’an
• ...And verily, a day with your Lord is as a thousand years of what you
reckon. (QS. Al-Hajj: 47)
• He arranges affair from the heavens to the earth, then it (affair) will go up
to Him, in one Day, the space whereof is a thousand years of your
reckoning. (QS. As-Sajdah: 5)
• From Allah, the Lord of the ways of ascent. The angels and the Ruh
(Gabriel) ascend to Him in a Day the measure whereof is fifty thousand
years. (QS. Al-Ma’aarij: 3-4)
• He (Allah) will say: "You stayed (on earth) not but a little, if you had only
known.” (QS. Al-Mu’minun: 112-114)
• And you will see the mountains and think them solid, but they shall pass
away as the passing away of the clouds. The Work of Allah, Who perfected
all things, verily... (An-Naml: 88)
PLANCK’S
QUANTUM
THEORY
 CLASSICAL PHYSICS MODERN PHYSICS

Huygens Coloumb Maxwell

1600 1900

1901

Newton Faraday
 The Story
Behind

• In the early 1890s,

the German Bureau of
Standards asked Max Planck
how to make the light bulb
more efficient.
• In order to do that, Planck
had understand how to
make most of a blackbody’s
emission as visible light.
 The distribution of blackbody
spectrum depends on temperature.
Mathematical models from classical
electromagnetism only fit the
blackbody spectrum for low
frequency (IR), but it predicted a
way too high amount of light in for
higher frequency (UV, V).
 What if the radiation is not emitted
continuously, but in the form of
discrete packet of energy?

Nobel
E = nhf The light bulb’s filament should
awarded
be heated to a temperature of
Planck’s constant about 3200 K to ensure that in 1918
-34 most of the energy is emitted
(6.626 x 10 J.s)
 The Uses of Planck’s Quantum Theory
In 1905, Einstein used Planck’s theory to help explain the photoelectric
effect, which later applied to create moving images in old television.
 The Uses of Planck’s Quantum Theory
In 1913, Niels Bohr used Planck’s theory to explain the stability of atoms.
Electrons are able to jump from one orbit to another by absorbing or
emitting a quantum of energy (i.e. a photon)  quantum leap.

Ernest Rutherford’s Niels Bohr’s

atomic model atomic model
What has Planck’s theory of quantum contributed
for the development of science and technology?

• Laid the foundation stone for quantum physics –

a new kind of physics – which explains the
nature and behavior of matter and energy on the
atomic and subatomic level.
• Became the theoritical basis for making
computer and using laser, also for developing
medical technology, such as magnetic resonance
imaging and positron emission tomography.
THANK
YOU