Doc-20160927-Wa0001 (2

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Introduction to curves - Analytical curves:
line, circle and conics – synthetic curves:
Hermite cubic spline- Bezier curve and B-
Spline curve – curve manipulations.
Introduction to surfaces - Analytical surfaces:
Plane surface, ruled surface, surface of
revolution and tabulated cylinder – synthetic
surfaces: Hermite bicubic surface- Bezier
surface and B-Spline surface- surface
manipulations.
Representation of Curves
 Generally shape representation have two uses
Analytic use.
Synthetic use.
 In Analytical, representation are used analytically to describe

shapes that can be measured.
 In synthetic, the designer interactively creates or modifies a

model of a shape, examining and improving the design until it is
acceptable.
Important properties for designing curves
 Control Points:
Locate points through which the curve must pass or
points that control the curve shape.
 Axis independence:
The shape of an object must not change when the control
points are measured in a different coordinate system.
 Global or local control:

As a designer manipulates a control point, a curve may
change shape only in the region near the control point
or it may change shape throughout.
3
 Variation diminishing property:
 A curve that oscillates about its control points is
usually undesirable.
 Variation diminishing curves tend to smooth out a
sequence of control points.
 Versatility:
 A curve representation that allows a limited variety of
shapes may frustrate a designer.
 The control of a curve representation, often by adding
or removing control points.
 Order of continuity:
A complex shape is usually not modeled by a single
curve, but by several curves pieced together end to end.
When creating joints, the designer often wants to control
the order of continuity at the joint.
4
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Introduction to curves - Analytical curves: line,
circle and conics – synthetic curves: Hermite
cubic spline- Bezier curve and B-Spline curve –
curve manipulations.
manipulations.
SYNTHETIC CURVES
 Need of synthetic curves in design arises:
 When a curve is represented by a collection of measured

data points and
 When an existing curve must change to meet new design

requirements.
 Data points are called control points for the curve.
 Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data

points to impose degree of smoothness of the resulting curve.
6
Order of Continuity
 The order of continuity becomes important when a complex

curve is modeled.
 Zero order continuity (C0) yields a position continuous curve.
7
 First (C1) and second (C2) order continuities imply slop and
curvature continuous curves respectively.
First order continuity Second order continuity
 The type of input data and its influence on the control of the
resulting synthetic curve determine the use and effectiveness of the
curve in design.
8
Most commonly used Synthetic Curves
• Cubic Spline
– It passes through the control points.
– It has only upto C1 continuity.
• Bezier Curve
– It does not pass through the control points but only
approximates the trend.
– It also has only upto C1 continuity.
• B-Spline Curve
– It is also most generally an approximator.
– It has upto C2 continuity.
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circle and conics – synthetic curves:
Hermite cubic spline- Bezier curve and B-
Spline curve – curve manipulations.
manipulations.
Cubic Spline
 Parametric spline curves are defined as
piecewise polynomial curves with a
certain order of continuity.
 Parametric cubic splines are used to

interpolate to given data.
 Cubic spline is determined by defining positions and tangent

vectors at the data points.
 The parametric cubic spline connects two data points and utilizes a
cubic function.
 Therefore four conditions (positions of the two end points and two
tangent vectors at the points) are required to determine the
coefficients of the equation.
 Parametric equation of cubic spline is given by
 Where u is the parameter and Ci is the polynomial coefficients

 Expanded vector form of above equations is
 In scalar form it can written as for x, y and z components
 Matrix form it can be written as

 The tangent vector to the curve at any point is given by
differentiating the equation with respect to ‘u’ to give
 Inorder to find the coefficients Ci, consider the cubic spline curve with
two endpoints P0 and P1.
 Applying the boundary conditions
 Solving these four equations simultaneously for the coefficients gives
 Substituting in the below equation and rearranging gives
are called geometric coefficients.

Tangent Vector becomes
The function of u called blending functions

 Equation can be written in a matrix form as
 Where is the Hermite matrix and V is the geometry vector.
 The curve’s shape can be controlled by changing its endpoints or its

tangent vectors.
 If the two end points are fixed in space, the designer can control the
shape of the spline by changing either the magnitudes or the direction
of the tangent vectors.
 The use of the cubic splines in design applications is not popular
compared to Bezier or B-spline curves.
 The control of the curve is not very obvious from the input data due
to its global control characteristics.
 The order of the curve is always constant (cubic).

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manipulations.
BEZIER CURVES
 Bezier curves and surfaces are credited to P. Bezier of the French car firm
Regie Renault who developed (1962).
 A Bezier curve is defined by a set of data points. The curve may

approximate the data points.
 The data points are used to control the shape of the resulting curves.
 Only the first and the last control points or vertices of the polygon
actually lie on the curve.
 The other vertices define the order, derivatives and shape of the curve.
 The curve shape tends to follow the polygon shape.
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BEZIER CURVE
 The figure shows the order of defining the control points

changes the polygon definition, which changes the resulting
curve shape.
 The arrow shown on each curve shows its direction.
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BEZIER CURVES FOR VARIOUS CONTROL POINTS
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BEZIER CURVES FOR VARIOUS CONTROL POINTS
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BEZIER CURVE
Mathematically for n+1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by the
following polynomial of degree n:
Where P(u) is a point on the curve and Pi is a control point.

Bi,n are the Bernstein polynomials .
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Characteristics of the Bezier Curve
 The curve interpolates the first and last control points;

that is, it passes through P0 and Pn.
 The curve is tangent to the first and last segments of the

polygon.
 Slope at P0 should be P0P1, at Pn it is Pn-1 Pn . It has C1

continuity.
 The curve is symmetric: the sequence of control points

defining the curve can be reversed without change of the
curve shape.
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Cont..
 The curve shape can be modified by either changing one or more

vertices of its polygon.
 A closed Bezier curve can simply be generated by closing its

characteristics polygon.
 The curve lies entirely within the convex hull formed by four
control points.
 The curve will never oscillates widely.

Modifications of cubic Bezier Curve
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CONVEX HULL OF A BEZIER CURVE
 Bezier curve has the convex hull property.
 A curve is said to have convex hull

property if it is lies entirely within the
convex hull defined by the polygon
vertices.
 In a plane, the convex hull is a closed

polygon and in 3D it is a polyhedron.
 The hull is formed by connecting the

vertices of the characteristic polygon.
 This is a useful property for graphics

functions such as displaying or clipping the
curve.
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Some Bezier Curves
28
Bezier Curves- Disadvantages
 Bezier curve seems superior to a cubic spline curve, it still

has some disadvantages.
 The curve does not pass through the control points which
may be inconvenient to some designers.
 The curve lacks local control. It only has the global control
nature.
 If one control point is changed, the whole curve changes.

Therefore, the designer cannot selectively change parts of the
curve.
Cubic Bezier Curves or 3rd degree Bezier curve
n =3 and four control points 1,2,3,4

Plotted Bezier Curve
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manipulations.
B – Spline Curve
 B-splines are a powerful tool for generating curves with many
control points and provide many advantages over Bezier
curves.
 A long, complicated curve can be specified as a single B-

spline.
 A curve designer has much flexibility in adjusting the

curvature of a B-spline curve.
 B-splines can be designed with sharp bends and even

corners.
 B-spline curves can interpolate or approximate a set of given

data points.
35
B – Spline Curve
Similar to Bezier curves, the B-spline curve defined by n+1 control points
Pi is given by
Properties of B-spline functions
36
The Characteristics of B- Spline Curve
 The local control of the curve can be achieved by changing the
position of a control points, using multiple control points by placing
several points at the same location, or by choosing a different degree.
 B-spline curve passes through the first and last control points P0 and
Pn+1 and is tangent to the first and last segments of the control
polygon.
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The Effect of Degree of B- Spline Curve on its shape
 Increasing the degree of the curve tightens it. In general, the less the
degree, the closer the curve gets to the control points.
 When k=1, a zero degree curve results. The curve then becomes the
control points themselves.
 When k=2, the curve becomes the polygon segments themselves.
 A second degree curve is always tangent to the midpoints of all the

internal polygon segments. This not in the case for other degrees.
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Identical B-spline and Bezier Curves
 If k equals the number

of control points, then
the resulting B-spline
curve becomes a Bezier
curve.
 Multiple control points

induce regions of high
curvature of a B-spline
curve. This is useful
when creating sharp
corners in the curve.
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Multiple Control point B-Spline curve
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An Closed B-spline curve with P0 and P5 coincident
 In representing closed curves, closed polygons are used where the

first and last control points are connected by a polygon segment.
41
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manipulations.
Curve Manipulations
• Analytic and synthetic curves essential to
geometric modeling.
• The effective use of these curves in a design and
manufacturing environment depends mainly on
their manipulation to achieve goals in hand.
• A user might want to blend curves with certain
continuity requirements. Or
• the intersection of two curves in space might
provide the coordinates of an important point to
engineering calculations or modeling of a part.
Evaluating Points on Curves
• Points on curves are generated for different modeling needs.
• For example, finite element modeling requires generating
nodal points (nodes) on the model to be used later in finite
element analysis.
• Evaluation methods must be efficient and fast for interactive
purposes as well as capable of producing enough points to
display a smooth curve.
• The obvious method of calculating the coordinates of points
on a curve by substituting successive values of its parameter
u into its equation is inefficient.
• Incremental methods prove to be more efficient.
• Using the forward difference technique to evaluate a curve
polynomial equation at equal intervals of its parameter is
the most common incremental method.
• Evaluating a point on a curve by using its parametric
value. u, is sometimes called the direct point solution.
• It entails evaluating three polynomials in u, one for each
coordinate of the point. The inverse problem is another
form of evaluating a point on a curve.
• Given a point on or close to a curve in terms of its
Cartesian coordinates x, y, and z, find the corresponding
u value.
• This problem arises, for example, x’ tangent vectors are
to be evaluated at certain locations on the curve.
• The solution to this problem is called the inverse point
solution and requires the solution of a nonlinear
polynomial in u via numerical methods.
Blending(combination)
• The construction of composite curves from the
various types of parametric curves forms
the core of the blending problem,
• which can be stated as follows: Given two curves
P1(u1), 0 < u1 < a, P2(u2), 0 < u2 < b,
• find the conditions for the two curves to be
continuous at the joint.
• Notice that the upper limits on u1 and u2 are taken
as a and b, and not 1, for generality.
Three classes of continuity at the joint can be
considered.
• The first is C0 continuity, where the ending point of
the first curve and the starting point of the second
curve are the same. This gives
• If the two segments are to be C1 continuous as
well, they must have slope continuity,
where α1 and α2 and are constants and T is the

common unit tangent vector at the Joint.
• The third useful class of
continuity is if curvature (C2
continuity) is to be
continuous at the joint in
addition to position and
slope.
• To achieve curvature
continuity is less
straightforward and requires
the binormal vector to a
curve at a position.
• Figure shows the tangent unit
vector T, the normal unit
vector N, the center of
curvature O, and the radius of
curvature at point P on a
curve.
Segmentation
• Segmentation or curve splitting is defined as replacing
one existing curve by one or more curve segments of
the same curve type such that the shape of the
composite curve is identical to that of the original curve.
• Segmentation is a very useful feature for CAD/CAM
systems.
• It is implemented as a Divide Entity command. Model
cleanup for drafting purposes is an example where a
curve might be divided into two at the line of sight of
another.
• One of the resulting segments is then deleted. Another
example is when a closed curve has to be split for
modeling purposes.
• Mathematically, curve segmentation is a reparametrization or
parameter transformation of the curve.
• Splitting lines, circles, and conics is a simple problem.
• To split a line connecting two points P0 and P1 at a point P2,
all that is needed is to define two new lines connecting the
point pairs (P0, P2) and (P2, P1).
• For circles and conics, the angle corresponding to the splitting
point together with the starting and ending angles of the
original curve defines the proper range of the parameter u for
the resulting two segments.
• Polynomial curves such as cubic splines, Bezier curves. and B-
spline curves require a different parameter transformation. If
the degree of the polynomial defining a curve is to be
unchanged, which is the case in segmentation, the
transformation must be linear.
Trimming
Intersection
• The roots of Eqs. can be found by numerical
analysis methods such as Newton-Raphson
method.
• This method requires an initial guess which can be
determined interactively.
• The user is usually asked by the CAD/CAM
software to click the two curves whose intersection
is required.
• These clicks could be changed to an initial guess to
start the solution. If more than one intersection
point exists, the user must click close to the
desired intersection point.
Transformation
• Transformation allows the designer to translate, rotate,
mirror, and scale various entities. These operations are
known as rigid-body transformations.
• The proper choice of the elements of this matrix
produces the various rigid-body transformations.
• One of the main characteristics of rigid-body
transformations is that geometric properties of curves,
surfaces, and solids are invariant under these
transformations.
• For example, parallel or perpendicular lines remain. so
after transformations. Intersection points of curves are
transformed into the new intersection points, that is,
one-to-one transformation.
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manipulations.
INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE MODELING
 Surface modeling is required in Shape design and representation of

complex objects such as car, ship and aircraft bodies as well as
castings.
 Surface creation on existing CAD/CAM systems usually requires

wireframe entities (lines, curves, points, etc.) as a start.
 To create a surface model, the user begins by constructing wireframe

entities and then connecting them appropriately with the proper
surface entities.
 Surface models are generated by using surface primitives such as

plane surface, ruled surface, surface of revolution, tabulated
cylinder, fillet surface, offset surface, Bezier surface, B-spline
surface and coons patch.
 A surface model of an object is a more complete and less ambiguous

representation than its wireframe model.
58
Surface Modeling
 In order to visualise surfaces on a graphic
display, a mesh say m x n in size is usually
displayed; the mesh size, is controlled by the
user.
 A wire frame model can be extracted from a

surface model by deleting all surface entities.
 Database of surface models are centralised and

associative, manipulation of surface entities in
one view is automatically reflected in the other
views.
 Surface model can be used for mass properties

calculation, finite element mesh, NC tool path
machining.
 Surface models can be shaded and represented

with hidden lines.
59
Mesh in Surface Models
Finer the mesh size of surface entities in a model, the longer the CPU
time to construct the entities and to update the graphics display and the
longer it takes to plot the surface model.
60
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manipulations.
Surface Entities
Major surface entities provided by CAD/CAM systems.
1. Plane Surface
 This is the simplest surface.
 The plane surface can be used to generate cross sectional

views by intersecting a surface model with it.
62
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manipulations.
2. Ruled (lofted )Surface
 This is a linear surface. It interpolated linearly between two

boundary curves that define the surface (rails).
 Rails can be any wireframe entity. This entity is ideal to

represent surfaces that do not have any twists or kinks.
64
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Plane surface, ruled surface,
surface of revolution and tabulated cylinder –
synthetic surfaces: Hermite bicubic surface-
Bezier surface and B-Spline surface- surface
manipulations.
3. Surface of revolution
 This is an axisymmetric surface that can model axisymmetric

objects. It is generated by rotating a planar wireframe entity
in space about the axis of symmetry a certain angle.
66
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manipulations.
4. Tabulated Cylinder
 This is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a
certain distance along a specified direction (axis of the
cylinder)
 It is used to generate surfaces that have identical curved cross

sections.
68
5. Bezier Surface
 This is a surface that approximates given input data.
 Similar to Bezier curve, it does not pass through all given

data points.
 It is a synthetic surface that permits, twists and kinks.
 It allows only the global control of the surface.
69
6. B-spline surface
 It is a synthetic surface, can approximate or interpolate

given input data.
 It permits local control of the surface.
70
7. Coons Patch
 Coons patch is used to create

surface using curves that form
closed boundaries.
8. Fillet surface
 Surface that blends two surfaces

together.
71
9. Offset surface
 Existing surface can be offset to create new ones

identical in shape but may have different dimensions.
72
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manipulations.
SURFACE REPRESENTATION
 The treatment of surfaces in computer graphics and CAD/CAM

requires developing the proper equations and algorithms for
both computation and programming purposes.
 Moreover, surface description is usually related to machining

requirements to manufacture the surface.
 The surface description must successfully drive a tool to generate

its path.
 Surface can be described mathematically in three dimensional space

by nonparametric or parametric equations.
SURFACE REPRESENTATION
 There are several methods to fit nonparametric surfaces to a

given set of data points.
 These fall into two categories. In the first, one equation is fitted
to pass through all the points while in the second the data points
are used to develop a series of surface patches that are
connected together with at least position and first derivative
continuity.
 In both categories, the equation of the surface or surface patch

is given by
where P is the position vector of a point on the surface.

Point P on a nonparametric surface patch
 The nonparametric surface representation suffers from all the

disadvantages, when compared with parametric surface representation,
that nonparametric curves suffers from when compared with parametric
curves.
 However nonparametric surfaces do have some advantages when it

comes to solving surface interaction problems, but these advantages do
not warrant their use in CAD/CAM.
Parametric Representation of a three-dimensional surface
 The parametric
representation of a
surface means a
continuous, vector
valued function P(u,v)
of two variables.
 The function P(u,v) at

certain u and v values
is the point on the
surface at these values.
Two patch parametric surface
 A patch is considered the basic mathematical element to model a

composite surface.
 Some surfaces may consist of one patch only, while others may
be a few patches connected together.
Surface Composed of rectangular and triangular patches
 The topology of a patch may be rectangular or triangular.
 Analogous to curves, there are analytic and synthetic surfaces.

Analytic surfaces are based on wireframe entities and include
the plane surface, ruled surface, surface of revolution, and
tabulated cylinder.
 Synthetic surfaces are formed from a given set of data points

or curves and include the Bicubic, Bezier, B-spline, and
Coons patches.
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manipulations.
BEZIER SURFACE
 An orderly set of data or control points is used to built a

topologically rectangular surface.
 The surface equation can be written by
 Where P (u,v) is any point on the

surface and Pij are the control points.
 These points form the vertices of the

control or characteristic polyhedron
of the resulting Bezier surface.
 The surface interpolates the four

corner control points.
Closed Bezier surface
 Bezier surface possesses the convex hull property.
 The convex hull in this case is the polyhedron formed by

connecting the furthest control points on the control polyhedron.
 The shape of the Bezier surface can be modified by either

changing some vertices of its polyhedron or by keeping the
polyhedron fixed and specifying multiple coincident points of
some vertices.
 A closed Bezier surface can be

generated by closing its polyhedron
or choosing coincident corner points.
COMPOSITE BEZIER SURFACE
 A composite Bezier surface can have C0 or C1 continuity.
 A positional continuity between, say two patches requires that the

common boundary curve between the two patches must have a
common boundary polygon between the two characteristic
polyhedrons.
 For tangent continuity across the boundary, the segments, attached

to the common boundary polygon, of one patch polyhedron must be
collinear with the corresponding segments of the other patch
polyhedron.
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manipulations.
B- Spline Surface
 A rectangular set of data points creates the surface.
 This set forms the vertices of the characteristic polyhedron that

approximates and controls the shape of the resulting surface.
 A B-spline surface can approximate or interpolate the vertices of

the polyhedron.
 The degree of the surface is independent of the number of control

points and continuity is automatically maintained throughout the
surface.
 As a result, surface interactions can easily be managed.

 A B-spline surface defined by (n+1)x (m+1) array of control points.
87
B- Spline Surface
DISPLAY OF CURVES AND SURFACES
 Displaying a curve or a surface to a designer is not an easy

task
 The designer may need to inspect small details of shape that

are hard to make visible on a graphic display.
To achieve realism
 Projections- Ortho, Perspective
 Shading
 Hidden surface/Line removal
89
Wire frame Display of curves and Surfaces
 The simplest method for displaying curves and surfaces is the wire
frame technique.
 To display a curve, its coordinates are evaluated for many closely

spaced values of the parameter u.
 The points are displayed and are connected by short straight line
segments.
 A complete surface is displayed by generating a mesh of such curves.
90
Display of curves
Increase the number of parameters to increase the smoothness of the

curve.
91
Less number of points will create the curve without smoothness.
For flatter region, the less number of points are enough in larger intervals. It is
required more in curved region.
92
Subdivide curve on the basis of change in total slope
93
Subdivide at midpoint of curve
Subdivide at midpoint till each part of curve is either flat enough or small
enough
94
UNIT
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Bezier surface and B-Spline surface-
surface manipulations.
segmentation
Trimming
Intersection
Projection

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UNIT

 In Analytical, representation are used analytically to describe

 In synthetic, the designer interactively creates or modifies a

 Global or local control:

 Need of synthetic curves in design arises:

 When a curve is represented by a collection of measured

 When an existing curve must change to meet new design

 Data points are called control points for the curve.

 Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data

 The order of continuity becomes important when a complex

 Zero order continuity (C0) yields a position continuous curve.

First order continuity Second order continuity

 Parametric cubic splines are used to

 Cubic spline is determined by defining positions and tangent

 Where u is the parameter and Ci is the polynomial coefficients

 In scalar form it can written as for x, y and z components

 Matrix form it can be written as

 Substituting in the below equation and rearranging gives

are called geometric coefficients.

The function of u called blending functions

 Where is the Hermite matrix and V is the geometry vector.

 The curve’s shape can be controlled by changing its endpoints or its

 The order of the curve is always constant (cubic).

 A Bezier curve is defined by a set of data points. The curve may

 The curve shape tends to follow the polygon shape.

 The figure shows the order of defining the control points

 The arrow shown on each curve shows its direction.

Where P(u) is a point on the curve and Pi is a control point.

 The curve interpolates the first and last control points;

 The curve is tangent to the first and last segments of the

 Slope at P0 should be P0P1, at Pn it is Pn-1 Pn . It has C1

 The curve is symmetric: the sequence of control points

 The curve shape can be modified by either changing one or more

 A closed Bezier curve can simply be generated by closing its

 The curve will never oscillates widely.

 Bezier curve has the convex hull property.

 A curve is said to have convex hull

 In a plane, the convex hull is a closed

 The hull is formed by connecting the

 This is a useful property for graphics

 Bezier curve seems superior to a cubic spline curve, it still

 If one control point is changed, the whole curve changes.

n =3 and four control points 1,2,3,4

 A long, complicated curve can be specified as a single B-

 A curve designer has much flexibility in adjusting the

 B-splines can be designed with sharp bends and even

 B-spline curves can interpolate or approximate a set of given

Properties of B-spline functions

 When k=2, the curve becomes the polygon segments themselves.

 A second degree curve is always tangent to the midpoints of all the

 If k equals the number

 Multiple control points

 In representing closed curves, closed polygons are used where the

where α1 and α2 and are constants and T is the

 Surface modeling is required in Shape design and representation of

 Surface creation on existing CAD/CAM systems usually requires

 To create a surface model, the user begins by constructing wireframe

 Surface models are generated by using surface primitives such as

 A surface model of an object is a more complete and less ambiguous

 A wire frame model can be extracted from a

 Database of surface models are centralised and

 Surface model can be used for mass properties

 Surface models can be shaded and represented