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MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS, 361-1-3151

MEASUREMENT THEORY
FUNDAMENTALS
361-1-3151

Eugene Paperno
http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/~paperno/

© Eugene Paperno, 2006


MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Grading policy 3

GRADING POLICY
20% participation in lectures
30% home exercises
50% presentation
MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Grading policy 4

HOMEWORK
Build in LabView the following virtual instruments (VI):
1. Lock-in amplifier SR830
www.thinksrs.com/mult/SR810830m.htm
2. Spectrum analyzer SR785
http://www.thinksrs.com/mult/SR785m.htm
MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS

The mathematical theory of measurement is elaborated in:

Krantz, D. H., Luce, R. D., Suppes, P., and Tversky, A. (1971). Foundations of
measurement. (Vol. I: Additive and polynomial representations.). New York: Academic
Press.

Suppes, P., Krantz, D. H., Luce, R. D., and Tversky, A. (1989). Foundations of
measurement. (Vol. II: Geometrical, threshold, and probabilistic representations). New
York: Academic Press.

Luce, R. D., Krantz, D. H., Suppes, P., and Tversky, A. (1990). Foundations of
measurement. (Vol. III: Representation, axiomatization, and invariance). New York:
Academic Press.

Measurement theory was popularized in psychology by S. S. Stevens, who originated the


idea of levels of measurement. His relevant articles include:

Stevens, S. S. (1946), On the theory of scales of measurement. Science, 103, 677-680.

Stevens, S. S. (1951), Mathematics, measurement, and psychophysics. In S. S. Stevens


(ed.), Handbook of experimental psychology, pp 1-49). New York: Wiley.

Stevens, S. S. (1959), Measurement. In C. W. Churchman, ed., Measurement: Definitions


and Theories, pp. 18-36. New York: Wiley. Reprinted in G. M. Maranell, ed., (1974) Scaling:
A Sourcebook for Behavioral Scientists, pp. 22-41. Chicago: Aldine.

Stevens, S. S. (1968), Measurement, statistics, and the schemapiric view. Science, 161,
849-856.

Reference: http://www.measurementdevices.com/mtheory.html
MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Contents 7

CONTENTS
1. Basic principles of measurements
1.1. Definition of measurement
1.2. Definition of instrumentation
1.3. Why measuring?
1.4. Types of measurements
1.5. Scaling of measurement results
2. Measurement of physical quantities
2.1. Acquisition of information
2.2. Units, systems of units, standards
2.2.1. Units
2.2.1. Systems of units
2.2.1. Standards
2.3. Primary standards
2.3.1. Primary voltage standards
2.3.2. Primary current standards
2.3.3. Primary resistance standards
2.3.4. Primary capacitance standards
MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Contents 8

2.3.5. Primary inductance standards


2.3.6. Primary frequency standards
2.3.7. Primary temperature standards
3. Measurement methods
3.1. Deflection, difference, and null methods
3.2. Interchange method and substitution method
3.3. Compensation method and bridge method
3.4. Analogy method
3.5. Repetition method
3.6. Enumeration method
4. Measurement errors
4.1. Systematic errors
4.2. Random errors
4.2.1. Uncertainty and inaccuracy
4.2.2. Crest factor
4.3. Error propagation ( ‫ העברת שגאיות‬,‫)תרגום‬
4.2.1. Systematic errors
4.2.1. Random errors
MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Contents 9

5. Sources of errors
5.1. Influencing the measurement object: matching
5.4.1. Anenergetic matching
5.4.2. Energic matching
5.4.3. Non-reflective matching
5.4.4. When to match and when not?
5.2. Noise types
5.2.1. Thermal noise
5.2.2. Shot noise
5.2.3. 1/f noise
5.3. Noise characteristics
5.3.1. Signal-to-noise ratio, SNR
5.3.2. Noise factor, F, and noise figure, NF
5.3.3. Calculating SNR and input noise voltage from NF
5.3.4. Two source noise model
5.4. Low-noise design: noise matching
5.4.1. Maximization of SNR
5.4.2. Noise in diodes
5.4.3. Noise in bipolar transistors
5.4.4. Noise in FETs
5.4.5. Noise in differential and feedback amplifiers
5.4.6. Noise measurements
MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Contents 10

5.5. Interference: environment influence


5.5.1. Thermoelectricity
5.5.2. Piezoelectricity
5.5.3. Leakage currents
5.5.4. Cabling: capacitive injection of interference
5.5.5. Cabling: inductive injection of interference
5.5.6. Grounding: injection of interference by improper grounding
5.5. Observer influence: matching
6. Measurement system characteristics
6.1. Sensitivity
6.2. Sensitivity threshold
6.3. Signal shape sensitivity
6.4. Resolution
6.5. Non-linearity
6.6. System response
MEASUREMENT THEORY FUNDAMENTALS. Contents 11

7. Measurement devices in electrical engineering


7.1. Input transducers
7.1.1. Mechanoelectric transducers
7.1.2. Thermoelectric transducers
7.1.3. Magnetoelectric transducers
7.2. Signal conditioning
7.2.1. Attenuators
7.2.2. Compensator network
7.2.3. Measurement bridges
7.2.4. Instrumentation amplifiers
7.2.5. Non-linear signal conditioning
7.2.6. Digital-to-analog conversion
8. Electronic measurement systems
8.1. Frequency measurement
8.2. Phase meters
8.3. Digital voltmeters
8.4. Oscilloscopes
8.5. Data acquisition systems
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement 12

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS


1.1. Definition of measurement
Measurement is the acquisition of information about
a state or phenomenon (object of measurement)
in the world around us.

This means that a measurement must be descriptive


with regard to that state or object we are measuring: there
must be a relationship between the object of measurement
and the measurement result.

The descriptiveness is necessary but not sufficient aspect


of measurement: when one reads a book, one gathers
information, but does not perform a measurement.

Reference: [1]
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement 13

A second aspect of measurement is that it must be selective:


it may only provide information about what we wish to measure
(the measurand) and not about any other of the many states or
phenomena around us.

This aspect too is a necessary but not sufficient aspect of


measurement. Admiring a painting inside an otherwise empty
room will provide information about only the painting, but does
not constitute a measurement.

A third and sufficient aspect of measurement is that it must be


objective. The outcome of measurement must be independent
of an arbitrary observer.

Reference: [1]
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement 14

In accordance with the three above aspects: descriptiveness,


selectivity, and objectiveness, a measurement can be described
as the mapping of elements from an empirical source set
onto elements of an abstract image set
with the help of a particular transformation (measurement
model).

Empirical space Image space

Transformation

Abstract,
States,
si well-defined ii
phenomena
symbols
Source set S Image set I

‫מרחב אמפירי‬ ‫מרחב אבסטרקטי‬

Source set and image set are isomorphic if the transformation


does copy the source set structure (relationship between the
elements).
Reference: [1]
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.1. Definition of measurement 15

Example: Measurement as mapping

Empirical space Image space

State (phenomenon): Transformation


Abstract symbol
Static magnetic field

B= f (R, w, V )

R
w Measurement model

V
Instrumentation
‫מרחב אמפירי‬ ‫מרחב אבסטרקטי‬
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.2. Definition of instrumentation 16

1.2. Definition of instrumentation


In order to guarantee the objectivity of a measurement, we
must use artifacts (tools or instruments). The task of these
instruments is to convert the state or phenomenon into a
different state or phenomenon that cannot be misinterpreted by
an observer.

The field of designing measurement instruments and systems


is called instrumentation.

Instrumentation systems must guarantee the required


descriptiveness, the selectivity, and the objectivity of the
measurement.

Reference: [1]
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.3. Why measuring? 17

1.3. Why measuring?

Let us define ‘pure’ science as science that has sole purpose


of describing the world around us and therefore is responsible
for our perception of the world.

In ‘pure’ science, we can form a better, more coherent, and


objective picture of the world, based on the information
measurement provides. In other words, the information allows
us to create models of (parts of) the world and formulate laws
and theorems.

We must then determine (again) by measuring whether this


models, hypotheses, theorems, and laws are a valid
representation of the world. This is done by performing
tests (measurements) to compare the theory with reality.

Reference: [1]
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.3. Why measuring? 18

We consider ‘applied’ science as science intended to change


the world: it uses the methods, laws, and theorems of ‘pure’
science to modify the world around us.

In this context, the purpose of measurements is to regulate,


control, or alter the surrounding world, directly or indirectly.
The results of this regulating control can then be tested and
compared to the desired results and any further corrections
can be made.

Even a relatively simple measurement such as checking the


tire pressure can be described in the above terms:

1) a hypothesis: we fear that the tire pressure is abnormal;


2) perform measurement;
3) alter the pressure if it
was abnormal.

Reference: [1]
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.3. Why measuring? 19

Illustration: Measurement in pure and applied science

REAL WORLD IMAGE


empirical states abstract numbers
phenomena, etc. symbols, labels, etc.

SCIENCE
Measurement Applied Pure
(processing, interpretation)
measurement results

Control/change

Verification (measurement) Hypotheses


Control/change laws
theories
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.4. Types of measurements 20

1.4. Types of measurements


To represent a state, we would like our measurements to have
some of the following characteristics.

Distinctiveness: A  B, A  B.

Ordering in magnitude: A < B, A  B, A > B.

Equal/unequal intervals: A-B < C-D, A-B  C-D,


A-B > C-D .

Ratio: A  k B (absolute zero is required).

Absolute magnitude: A  ka REF, B  kb REF


(absolute reference or unit is required).

These five characteristics are used to determine the five types


(levels) of measurements.

Reference: [1]
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.4. Types of measurements 21

Illustration: Levels of measurements (S. S. Stevens, 1946)

ABSOLUTE Abs. unit

RATIO Abs. zero

INTERVAL Distance is meaningful

ORDINAL States can be ordered

NOMINAL States are only named


1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 22

1.5. Scaling of measurement results


A scale is an organized set of measurements, all of which
measure one property.
The types of scales reflect the types of measurements:
1. nominal scale,
2. ordinal scale,
3. interval scale,
4. ratio scale,
5. absolute scale.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 23

A scale is not always unique; it can be changed without loss


of isomorphism.

Empirical space Image space

Transformation

Abstract,
States,
si phenomena well-defined ii
symbols
Source set S Image set I

‫מרחב אמפירי‬ ‫מרחב אבסטרקטי‬


1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 24

A scale is not always unique; it can be changed without loss


of isomorphism.

Empirical space Image space

Transformation

Abstract,
States,
si phenomena well-defined iii i
symbols
Source set S
Image set I

‫מרחב אמפירי‬ ‫מרחב אבסטרקטי‬


1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 25

1. Nominal scale

State  orthogonality Image1

Examples:
numbering of
1 1
football
players,
detection
and alarm
0 0
systems,
etc.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 26

1. Nominal scale

State  orthogonality Image2=(Image1+1)p

Examples:
numbering of
2p
1 2p
1
football
players,
detection or
alarm
p
0 p
0
systems,
etc.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 27

1. Nominal scale

State  orthogonality Image3=Cos(Image2)

Examples:
numbering of
2p
1 2p
1
football
players,
detection or
alarm
-p1 -p1
systems,
etc.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 28

1. Nominal scale

State  orthogonality Image4=Image32p

Examples:
numbering of
2p
1 2p
1
football
players,
detection or
alarm
-2p
-1 -2p
-1
systems,
etc.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 29

1. Nominal scale

State  orthogonality Image5=Cos(Image4)

Examples:
numbering of
2p
1 2p
1
football
players, The structure is lost!
detection or
alarm
-2p
1 -2p
1
systems,
etc.

Any one-to-one transformation can be used to


change the scale.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 30

2. Ordinal scale

State  order Image1


Examples:
IQ test,
A 1 A 2
etc. B 1 B 1

A 2 A 1
B 1 B 2
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 31

2. Ordinal scale

State  order Image2  Image12


Examples:
IQ test,
A 1 A 4
2
etc. B 1 B 1

A 4
2 A 1
B 1 B 4
2
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 32

2. Ordinal scale

State  order Image3  -Image2


Examples:
IQ test,
AA-1
1 AA-4
4
competition BB-1
1 BB-1
1
results, The structure is lost!
etc.
AA-4
4 AA-1
1
BB-1
1 BB-4
4

Any monotonically increasing transformation, either linear or


nonlinear, can be used to change the scale.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 33

Interval scale

State  interval Image1


Examples:
time scales, A 4 A 5
temperature B4 B4
A-B 0 A-B 1
scales, etc.,
where the
origin or zero A 8 A 6
is not fixed B4 B7
A-B 4 A-B 1
(floating).
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 34

Interval scale

State  interval Image2 10Image1+2


Examples:
time scales, A  442 A  552
temperature B  442 B  442
A-B 0 A-B 110
scales, etc.,
where the
origin or zero A  882 A  662
is not fixed B  442 B  772
A-B 440 A-B 110
(floating).

Any increasing linear transformation can be used to


change the scale.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 35

4. Ratio scale

State  ratio Image1


Examples:
measurement A 4 A 5
of any physical B4 B4
A/B  1 A/B  5/4
quantities
having fixed
(absolute) A 8 A 6
origin. B4 B7
A/B  2 A/B  6/7
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 36

4. Ratio scale

State  ratio Image2 10Image1


Examples:
measurement A  440 A  550
of any physical B  440 B  440
A/B  1 A/B  5/4
quantities
having fixed
(absolute) A  880 A  660
origin. B  440 B  770
A/B  2 A/B  6/7

The only transformation that can be used to change the


scale is the multiplication by any positive real number.
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 1.5. Scaling of measurement results 37

5. Absolute scale

State  absolute value Image


Examples:
measurement
Ref. Ref. A 1 A  5/4
of any physical
quantities by
comparison
against an
Ref. Ref. A 2 A  3/2
absolute unit
(reference).

No transformation can be used to change the scale


Next lecture 38

Next lecture: LabView (in the computer class)

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