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15ME 203 Manufacturing Technology

Unit 1 : Casting
By

R.SARAVANAKUMAR
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department

SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur – 603 203 1


Objective of the Course

1. Study the various ways of working of metals


2. Concept of casting Technology
3. Concept of Machining with lathes and automats
4. Study of Milling machine and Gear manufacturing process
5. Various Surface finishing and Fine Finishing processes

Category Course L T P C
Manufacturing Technology
P 3 0 0 3

Manufacturing Process
P 0 0 2 1
Laboratory

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Syllabus
CASTING AND WELDING
Introduction to casting, Patterns, Types, Pattern materials, Allowances – Moulding
– types– Moulding sand, Gating and Risering, Cores &Core making. Special
Casting Process - Shell, Investment, Die casting, Centrifugal Casting.

Special welding– Laser, Electron Beam, Ultrasonic, Electro slag, Friction welding,
Electrical resistance welding.

MECHANICAL WORKING OF METALS


Hot and Cold Working: Rolling, Forging, Wire Drawing, Extrusion – types –
Forward, backward and tube extrusion.

Sheet Metal Operations: Blanking– blank size calculation, draw ratio, drawing
force, Piercing, Punching, Trimming, Stretch forming, Shearing, Bending– simple
problems– Bending force calculation, Tube forming – Embossing and coining,
Types of dies: Progressive, compound and combination dies.

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING
Orthogonal and oblique cutting– Classification of cutting tools: single, multipoint –
Tool signature for single point cutting tool – Mechanics of orthogonal cutting – Shear
angle and its significance – Chip formation– Cutting tool materials– Tool wear and
tool life – Machinability – Cutting Fluids– Simple problems.

GEAR MANUFACTURING AND SURFACE FINISHING PROCESS


Gear manufacturing processes: Extrusion, Stamping, and Powder Metallurgy. Gear
Machining: Forming. Gear generating process – Gear shaping, Gear hobbing.

Grinding process, various types of grinding machine, Grinding Wheel – types –


Selection of Cutting speed and work speed, dressing and truing. Fine Finishing –
Lapping, Buffing, Honing, and Super finishing.

MACHINE TOOLS
Milling Machine – specification, Types, Types of cutters, operations, Indexing
methods– simple problems. Shaping, Planning and Slotting Machine – description,
Operations, Work and tool holding Devices. Boring machine – Specification,
operations, Jig boring machine. Broaching machine – operations, Specification,
Types, Tool nomenclature.

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TEXT BOOKS
1. Sharma, P.C., A textbook of Production Technology – Vol I and II, S. Chand &
Company Ltd., New Delhi, 1996.
2. Rao, P.N., Manufacturing Technology, Vol I & II, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co.,
New Delhi, 1998.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Chapman W. A. J., Workshop Technology Vol. I and II, Arnold Publisher, New
Delhi, 1998.
2. Hajra Choudhary, S. K. and Hajra Choudhary, A. K., Elements of Manufacturing
Technology, Vol II, Media Publishers, Bombay, 1988.
3. Jain. R. K., Production Technology, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1988.
4. Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering

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Product Life Cycle

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Introduction to Manufacturing Technology
Manufacturing is the backbone of any industrialized nation.

Manufacturing industry must know the following;

Manufacturing processes
Materials being processed
Tools and equipment's for manufacturing different components
Products with optimal process plan using proper precautions
Specified safety rules to avoid accidents

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Manufacturing Processes
Production or manufacturing can be simply defined as value addition
processes by which raw materials are converted into valued products.

Source for Fig 1.1 NPTL Manufacturing


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This refers to science and technology of manufacturing products effectively,
efficiently, economically and environment-friendly through

Application of any existing manufacturing process and system


Proper selection of input materials, tools, machines and environments
Improvement of the existing materials and processes
Development of new materials, systems, processes and techniques

All such manufacturing processes, systems, techniques have to be

Technologically acceptable
Technically feasible
Economically viable
Eco-friendly
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Terms
 Solidify – To become solid / to make some thing solid.

 Forming - the work piece is reshaped without adding or


removing material, and its mass remains unchanged.

 compaction - is the process of compacting metal powder in


a die through the application of high pressures.

 Sintering – It is the process of compacting and forming a


solid mass of material by heating and or pressure with out
melting in to the point of liquefaction.

 Hardening – It is the metallurgical and metal working


process used to increase the hardness of a metal.

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 Deformation- changes in an object's shape or form due
to the application of a force

 Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or


more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal
having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.

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Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-
sectional profile. A material is pushed or pulled through a die of the
desired cross-section.

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Broad classification of Manufacturing Processes
(a) Shaping or forming Manufacturing a solid product of definite
size and shape from a given material taken in three possible states:

• in solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.


• in liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
• in powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.

(b) Joining process


Welding, brazing, soldering etc.

(c) Removal process


Machining (Traditional or Non-traditional), Grinding etc.

(d) Regenerative manufacturing Production of solid products in


layer by layer from raw materials in different form:
• liquid – e.g., stereo lithography
• powder – e.g., selective sintering
• sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
• wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modelling)
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Definition
 The solidified piece of metal, which is taken out of the
mould, is called as “Casting”.
 A plant were the castings are made is called a
“Foundary”

 The casting process is also called as founding . The


word “Foundry” is derived form Latin word “fundere”
meaning “melting and Pouring”

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Casting
It is a earliest metal shaping technique known to human being since 3500BC.

Simple and complicated shapes can be made from any metal that can be melted.

Example of cast parts: frames, structural parts, machine components, engine


blocks, valves, pipes, statues, ornamental artifacts.

Casting processes basically involve the introduction of a molten metal


into refractory mold cavity, where upon solidification, the metal takes on
the shape of the mold cavity.

Refractory mold  pour liquid metal  solidify, remove  finish


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4. Metal

3. Pattern

2. Sand

1. Molding Box
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Pattern - Casting Product –
Master Model piece Actual work piece

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Steps in Sand Casting

1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold


2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting COPE

4. Clean and inspect casting


DRAG
Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve metallurgical
properties

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Classification of casting processes
 Expendable mould casting
 Permanent mould Casting
 Semi Permanent mould Casting

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Advantages
It is possible to cast any material be it ferrous or non-ferrous.

Tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive.

It is an ideal method for trail production or production of small lots.

Good directional properties.

Casting of any size and weight, even up to 200 tonnes can be made.

Limitations
Dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieve.
Traditional casting methods are labour intensive.

Difficult to remove the defects in some materials due to moisture in sand.

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Applications

Cylinder blocks
Liners
Machine tool beds
Pistons
Piston rings
Mill rolls
Wheels
Housings
Water supply pipes
air compressor frame
Bells etc.,

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Casting Terms
1. Flask (Cope & Drag)

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2. Pattern
It is a replica of the object to be made.

Mould cavity is made with the help of pattern

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3. Parting Line
It is a dividing line between cope, drag and also for split pattern.

4. Bottom Board
It is made of wood, the pattern is first kept on the bottom board

5. Facing Sand
Carbonaceous material is sprinkled on the inner surface of the
moulding cavity to give better castings

7. Moulding Sand
Mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content
from 6 to 8%. It is used to make mould cavity.

8. Pouring Basin
It is a funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which molten
material is poured.
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Steps involved in making a sand mould
1. Initially a suitable size of moulding box for suitable wall thickness is selected
for a two piece pattern.

2. Next, place the drag portion of the pattern with the parting surface down on
the bottom (ram-up) board as shown below;

3. The facing sand is then sprinkled carefully all around the pattern so that the
pattern does not stick with moulding sand during withdrawn of the pattern.

4. The drag is then filled with loose prepared moulding sand and ramming of
the moulding sand is done uniformly in the moulding box around the pattern.
Fill the moulding sand once again and then perform ramming. Repeat the
process three four times,
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5. The excess amount of sand is then removed using strike off bar to bring
moulding sand at the same level of the moulding flask height to completes the
drag.

6. The drag is then rolled over and the parting sand is sprinkled over on the top
of the drag

7. Now the cope pattern is placed on the drag pattern and alignment is done
using dowel pins.

8. Then cope (flask) is placed over the rammed drag and the parting sand is
sprinkled all around the cope pattern.

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13. Rap and remove both the cope and drag patterns and repair the mould
suitably if needed and dressing is applied

14. The gate is then cut connecting the lower base of sprue basin with runner
and then the mould cavity.

15. Apply mould coating with a swab and bake the mould in case of a dry sand
mould.

16. Set the cores in the mould, if needed and close the mould by inverting cope
over drag.

17. The cope is then clamped with drag and the mould is ready for pouring

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Patterns
Pattern is the replica of the casting and it is embedded in moulding sand. The
pattern is then withdrawn for generating cavity (known as mould) in moulding sand,
so it is a mould forming tool.

Objectives of a pattern

1. Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting.


2. Pattern possesses core prints which produces seats in form of extra recess for
core placement in the mould.
3. It establishes the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.
4. Runner, gates and riser may form a part of the pattern.
5. Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.
6. Properly made pattern having finished and smooth surface reduce casting
defects.

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Types of Patterns
1. Single-piece or solid pattern
Solid pattern is made of single piece without
joints, partings lines or loose pieces. It is the
simplest form of the pattern.

2. Two-piece or split pattern

•When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the mold cavity, then
solid pattern is splited in two parts.

•Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined at the parting line by means of
dowel pins.

•The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate the withdrawal of the pattern.
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Types of Patterns
3. Gated pattern
•In the mass production of casings,
multi cavity moulds are used.

•Such moulds are formed by


joining a number of patterns and gates and providing a common runner for the
molten metal.

•These patterns are made of metals, and metallic pieces to form gates and runners
are attached to the pattern.
4. Cope and drag pattern

•Cope and drag part of the mould are prepared separately.

•This is done when the complete mould is too heavy to be handled by one operator.

•The pattern is made up of two halves, which are mounted on different plates. 32
Types of Patterns
5. Match plate pattern

Cope and drag patterns along with


Gating , risering are mounted on a single
matching plate on either side.

After removing match plate mould cavity along with gating will be formed.

Several patterns can be fixed to a single match plate if they are small in size.

Used for small castings with higher dimensional accuracy and & large production.

This pattern is used in machine molding.


6. Loose-piece Pattern
It is used when pattern is difficult for withdrawl from the mould.

Loose pieces are provided on the pattern and they are the part of pattern.

First main pattern is removed finally the loose piece is withdrawal separately 33
Types of Patterns
7. Follow board pattern

Used for castings which are structurally


Weak.

Bottom board is modified as follow board


to follow the contour of weak pattern and give support during ramming

8. Sweep Pattern

Used for forming large circular moulds of


symmetric kind by revolving a sweep attached
to a spindle.

Sweep is a template of wood or metal and


is attached to the spindle at one edge and
the other edge has a contour depending upon the desired shape of the mould.

The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal in the center of the mould.
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Types of Patterns
9. Skeleton pattern
Used for large castings having simple geometric shape.

These are simple wooden frames that outline the shape of the part to be cast.

Used in Pit or floor moulding process.

For round shape pattern is made into two halves.

Used for casting water pipe turbine castings etc.

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Pattern Materials

Wood, Metal, Plastic, Plaster, Wax, Etc…

Wood is most commonly used because of easily available, machinability and low
Weight.

Metal patterns are used for large scale casting productions, close tolerances,
Smooth, Surface finish. Aluminium and white metals are commonly used.

Plastics are used because of their low weight, easier formability, smooth surface.

Choice of pattern material depends on Size, No of Castings, Dimensional accuracy,


Expected life.

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Difference Between Tolerance and Allowance

 Tolerance –It is the permissible limit or limits of


variation in dimension or value or property.
 Allowance - It is a planned deviation between an
actual dimension and a nominal or theoretical
dimension
 Allowance is a concept very similar to tolerance but is
different in the sense that allowance refers to tolerance
in dimension that is deliberately given to a metal
during the process of manufacture and design.

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Pattern Allowances
Final dimensions of casting are different from pattern because of various reasons

1. Shrinkage allowances
 Metal Shrinks on solidification and contracts further cooling at room temperature.
 Liquid Shrinkage refers to reduction in volume when metal changes from liquid to
solid state. Risers are used to compensate this.
 Solid Shrinkage refers to reduction in volume when metal loses temperature in
solid state. Shrinkage allowance is used to overcome this.
 Shrink rulers are used for different castings.

Cast Iron, Malleable iron 10mm/m


Brass, Cu, Al 13mm/m
Steel 21.0mm/m
Zinc, lead 25mm/m
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Pattern Allowances

2. Draft allowances
 Vertical faces of pattern are continual contact with the sand and may
damage during withdrawal.
It is a positive allowance and is given on all the vertical surfaces of
pattern so that its withdrawal becomes easier.
Inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces.
More draft is needed for hand molding

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Pattern Allowances

3. Machining allowance
 To get better surface finish for casting

Depends on type of metal and finish

4. Shake allowance
 Pattern is rapped all around the faces to remove and it enlarges the final casting.

 So original dimensions should be reduced to overcome this.

 Purely depends on skill of labour

 It is negative allowance and one way to overcome is increase the draft.

5. Distortion allowance
This allowance is considered only for casting of irregular shape which are
distorted in the process of cooling because of metal shrinkage.

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Moulding Types
Commonly used traditional methods of molding are bench molding, floor
molding, pit molding and machine molding.
1. Bench Molding

This type of molding is preferred for small jobs.

Whole molding operation is carried out on a bench of convenient height.

 In this process, a minimum of two flasks, namely cope and drag molding flasks
are necessary.

But in certain cases, the number of flasks may increase depending upon the
number of parting surfaces required.

2. Floor Molding
This type of molding is preferred for medium and large size jobs.
 In this method, only drag portion of molding flask is used to make the mold
The floor itself is utilized as drag
It is usually performed with dry sand. 41
Moulding Types
3. Pit Molding
Usually large castings are made in pits instead of drag flasks because of their
huge size.

In pit molding, the sand under the pattern is rammed by bedding-in process.

The walls and the bottom of the pit are usually reinforced with concrete and a
layer of cope is laid on the bottom of the pit to enable easy escape of gas.

The cope bed is connected to atmosphere through vent pipes which provide an
outlet to the gases.

One box is generally required to complete the mold, runner, sprue, pouring basin
and gates are cut in it.

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Moulding Types
4. Machine Molding
For mass production of the casting

The main advantage of machine molding, besides the saving of labor and
working time, is the accuracy and uniformity of the castings which can otherwise
be only obtained with much time and labor.

Cost of machining on the casting can be reduced drastically because it is


possible to maintain the tolerances within narrow limits.

Molding machines thus prepare the moulds at a faster rate and also eliminate the
need of employing skilled molders.

The main operations performed by molding machines are ramming of the


molding sand, roll over the mold, form gate, rapping the pattern and its withdrawal.

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Types of moulding sand
1. Green sand

Silica sand + Clay 18 to 30% + Moisture 6 to 8%

It is fine, soft, light, and porous.

Green sand is damp, when squeezed in the hand and it retains the shape
and the impression to give to it under pressure.

Moulds prepared by this sand are not requiring baking and hence are
known as green sand moulds.

This sand is easily available and it possesses low cost.

 It is commonly employed for production of ferrous and non-ferrous


castings.

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2. Dry sand
Green sand that has been baked in suitable oven after the making mould
and cores
It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability.
It is mainly suitable for larger castings.

3. Facing sand
It is sprinkled on the inner surface of the moulding cavity to give better
castings
It is directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes into contact
molten metal when the mould is poured.
It is made of silica sand and clay, without the use of used sand.

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4. Backing sand
Repeatedly used moulding sand is mainly employed for this purpose.
Black in colour due to addition of coal dust and burning on coming in
contact with the molten metal.

5. Parting sand (adhesiveness)


This is clean clay-free silica sand which serves the same purpose as
parting dust.

To keep the green sand not to stick to the pattern and also to allow the sand
on the parting surface the cope and drag to separate without clinging.
6. Core sand
Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand

This is highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which
composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other bind materials.

 Pitch or flours and water may also be used in large cores for the sake of
economy. 46

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