Chapter 11: Genetics

11.1 The Work of Gregor

Mendel

 Genetics: study of Heredity, or the passing

of characteristics from parents to offspring.

 Traits: Inherited characteristics.

 Examples: eye color, red hair, height ….

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http://www.writing.ucsb.edu/faculty/samuels/dna.jpg
Gametes: The sex cells found in an
individual or plant - egg or sperm and
plants pollen .
 Fertilization: The uniting
of male and female
gametes.

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 Mendel’s Peas
 Gregor Mendel (1822-1884): An Austrian
monk. He wanted to know how traits were
passed from parent to child. Studied pea
plants.

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 Mendel started out with
plants that he knew would
only produce tall and pea
plants that only produces
short offspring.
 He mated short plants with
tall plants.
 All the offspring were tall

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http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/esp/2001_gbio/folder_structure/ge/m2/s2/assets/images/gem2s2_1.jpg
Tall Short Tall Tall Tall Tall Tall Short

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 The parental generation: P1
generation

 The first generation of offspring:

F1 generation

 The second generation of

offspring: F2 generation

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http://www.fastplants.org/graphics/genetics/parent_F2.jpg
 Mendel had the new tall
offspring (F1 plants) self-
pollinate and observed the
second generation (F2 Plants).

 The resulting plants were tall ¾

of the time, and short ¼ of the
time!

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http://www.biology.arizona.edu/mendelian_genetics/problem_sets/monohybrid_cross/graphics/02Q.gif
What did Mendel concluded about trait
inheritance?

factors are passed from generation to

generation.
Genes: are the Factors that determine
traits.
Ex. Hair and eye color, height
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There are two alleles that determine trait inheritance.

 Alleles: A particular form of

a gene, one comes from the
mother, one from the father.
 Ex. Gene = height, the allele
could be tall or short.
 Gene = eye color, the allele
could be light or dark.

http://ghs.gresham.k12.or.us/science/ps/sci/soph/genetics/alleles.gif

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 The Role of Dominance
 If there are two alleles, and only one
observed trait, which allele is dominant?
 A dominant allele is always expressed.

 A recessive allele
not expressed when in the presence of a
dominant allele.
is expressed when paired with another
recessive allele.

11 http://wellspring.isinj.com/bio/principlesI/Images/segregation.jpg
 T is dominant to t which is recessive.

Genotype is
the genes.
Phenotype is
the physical
appearance.

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 T is dominant to t which is recessive.
 TT = homozygous dominant
 Tt = heterozygous

 tt = homozygous recessive

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 Law of SEGREGATION

Mendel’s first law.

Segregation= separation of two alleles during
gamete formation during meiosis , each
gamete receives one of the two alleles.

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 Law of Independent
Assortment
Segregation + Independent assortment =
four possible combinations of alleles.
Law of Independent Assortment states traits
like shape and seed color are inherited
independently of each other.

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 Each F1 has a tall and
short allele (for the
gene for height) that it
can pass on to its
offspring (F2)

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 11.2 Punnett Squares or
Test Cross
- A diagram used to show inheritance patterns
in offspring
- - Used to predict / compare variation in traits

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11.3 Mendelian Genetics

 Monohybrid
cross:
comparing one
gene. Each
parent donates
one allele to the
offspring

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 Homozygous: Two of the (same size allele) for a
trait.
 Ex. TT or tt. Purebreds
 Heterozygous: Two different alleles for one trait.
 Ex. Tt.
 TT is homozygous dominant.
 tt is homozygous recessive.
 Tt is heterozygous.

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20
Dihybrid Cross (Two factor
cross)
 Ex. Wrinkled and
yellow peas or
round and green
peas
 Each parent
donates two alleles
to the offspring

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Phenotypes - Dihybrid Crosses

RRYY, RRYy, RrYY, RrYy = Round

Yellow
rrYY, rrYy = Wrinkled Yellow
RRyy, Rryy = Round Green
rryy = Wrinkled Green

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 Incomplete Dominance

 The heterozygous form

of 2 different dominant
alleles for a trait.
 Example: Cross red
(RR) flower with a white
(WW) flower. The
resulting RW flower is
pink.
 Blending Colors!
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Codominance
 Both alleles are
expressed equally.
 B for black, W for
white
 BB black, BW white
and black, WW
white.
 Ex: Roan Cows,
chickens

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Multiple Alleles

More than 2 alleles

exist for any one
gene or trait.
 The result is
various
expressions of the
gene.
 Example: various
hair color and blood
types
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 Only two alleles are found in an
individual, but there can be many
different alleles that exist in a
population.
 Ex Blood type A,B, or O are all alleles
 AB=type, AO=Type A, BO= Type B
OO = Type O
 You can not have ABO blood type
because you only inherit two alleles.
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 Polygenic Inheritance

 Polygenic Inheritance: The inheritance

pattern of a trait that is controlled by more
than one gene.
 Genes may be on the same chromosome
or different chromosomes.
 Ex. Skin color, eye color, hair color
 Very often, the more dominant alleles that
are involved, the more the trait is
expressed.
 Ex. 1 dominant allele: light skin, 2: darker,
4:
27 very dark, etc.
 Sex Linked Traits
 Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes, or chromosome
pairs that resemble one another. The 23rd pair of
chromosomes are called the sex chromosomes.
 Sex Linked Traits: Traits controlled by alleles that are
found on the sex chromosomes, usually on the X
chromosome.
 Ex. Color blindness, hemophilia
 Notation is XBXb or XBXB (female) and XBY or XbY
(male) instead of BB, Bb or bb.
 Can a man pass on a sex linked trait to his son??
Show work.

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 Mitosis Review

Mitosis produces cells with exactly the same amount of

chromosomes as the original cell.
If this was the only means of cell division, offspring
would end up with twice as many chromosomes as the
parents.

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 Meiosis
Important Terms

Haploid: cell with one of each kind of chromosome (n)

Organisms produce gametes that are haploid…egg and
sperm
Diploid: cell with two of each kind of chromosome (2n)
Body cells of animals/plants have chromosomes that
occur in pairs…one from each parent

How do organisms produce haploid gametes?

To produce haploid gametes, organisms under go
meiosis
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 Meiosis
Meiosis has 2 separate divisions…Meiosis I and Meiosis II
Meiosis I begins with a Diploid cell…2n
Meiosis II finishes with 4 Haploid cells (1n)
These 4 Haploid cells are Gametes (Egg or Sperm)
With Fertilization, Sperm has (23) chromosomes and Egg
(23).. Haploid…come together to produce a Zygote with
(46) chromosomes..Diploid
This pattern of reproduction that involves the combining (fusion)
of haploid gametes is called Sexual Reproduction

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 QUESTIONS/
EXAMPLES
TITLE: Meiosis
Where do you find Homologous Chromosomes:
homologous Paired chromosomes, each with
chromosomes? genes for the same traits. These
exist in Diploid cells and are what
-in Diploid Cells determine how an individual looks.
-Ex:

Mom’s chromosomes
for hair color
Dad’s
chromosomes
for hair color
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Phases of Meiosis

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 What happens within the cell
during Interphase of Meiosis?

DNA is
Replication

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Prophase I
Crossing Over can occur

Each pair of homologous

chromosomes come together
to form a four-part structure
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 Metaphase I

homologus
In Meiosis, the pairs
Tetrad of
homologous
chromosomes lines
up down the middle

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 Anaphase I
What gets
separated
during
Anaphase I?
Spindle fibers pull
homologous Homologus
chromosomes pairs
toward opposite
ends of the cell

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 Telophase I Are the two cells
identical?
No, the cells have
Cells begin to different sets of
separate into chromosomes!
two cells

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Meiosis I

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Meiosis II is identical to Mitosis

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Prophase II
Nuclear Membrane breaks down,
chromosomes condense.

Chromosomes do not replicate

during Prophase II of Meiosis.

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 Metaphase II

Chromosomes line
up down the center
of the cell

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 Anaphase II

Sister Chromatids
separate towards
opposite ends of
each cell

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 Telophase II
A nuclear envelope forms
around each set of
chromosomes and
cytokinesis occurs, producing
four daughter cells.
Produces 4 Haploid Cells
that are genetically different
How many and what type of cells
are produced at the end of
Telophase II? 4 haploid cells!!

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Meiosis II

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Mitosis vs. Meiosis

 Results in 2  Results in 4
genetically identical genetically different
cells cells
 Cells are diploid  Cells are haploid

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 Meiosis causes Genetic Variation

Meiosis “shuffles” chromosomes so that the

offspring are not identical to the parents
Principle of Independent Assortment: genes
for different traits segregate INDEPENDENTLY
during meiosis, as long as they are on separate
chromosomes.

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HOW do genes for different traits separate
independently?

Answer: By chromosomes lining up

randomly during meiosis.

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 Crossing Over – an exchange of
genetic material between homologous
chromosomes
 Occurs randomly anywhere on the
chromosomes

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Genetic Recombination= re-assortment of
chromosomes and genetic information they
carry, either by crossing over or
independent segregation of homologous
chromosomes

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What does crossing over and
independent assortment create?
-Genetic Variation/offspring that are
different from their parents.
How does genetic recombination occur?
-By independent segregation/assortment
or crossing over

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 Genetic Mistakes

Nondisjuction: chromosomes fail to separate correctly during

meiosis
Both chromosomes from a homologous pair move to the
same pole of the cell
Trisomy: zygote has an extra chromosome
Ex: Trisomy 21 (Down Syndromes)

Karyotype

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What occurs when both chromosomes
from a homologous pair are pulled to
the same pole of the cell?
Nondisjunction or genetic mistake

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 Genetic Mistakes
Monosomy: A form of nondisjuction where zygote is missing one
chromosome
In humans, most zygotes/organisms with monosomy do not
survive
What is one example of Monosomy where organisms can
survive? Ex: Turner Syndrome= Human females with only one
X chromosome

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 Genetic Mistakes

Nondisjuction of homologous chromosomes

- Complete Diploid set of chromosomes is
passed to gamete
 Offspring has 3 sets of that chromosome
after fertilization
 Called: Triploid

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 Polyploids: Organisms with more
than 2 sets of chromosomes
- Rare in animals and usually causes
death
 - Occurs frequently in plants
• Flowers/fruits are larger and usually
healthier

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 Gene Linkage

Genes close together on a chromosome are

less likely to separate through crossing
over.
 Gene linked Ex. Blonde hair and blue
eyes.

These genes are usually inherited traits

together
It is the chromosomes that separate
independently not genes.
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 Chapter 11 Concept Map
Heredity
Genetics Traits
Gregor Mendel
Pollination Gametes
Fertilization
1st Generation 2nd Generation

Alleles

Dominant Recessive The law of

segregation
Phenotype Homozygous Genotype

59 Heterozygous The law of independent

assortment
 Chapter 11 Concept Map
Reginald Punnett Punnett Square
Monohybrid cross Dihybrid Cross

Genes, Chromosomes and numbers

Haploid Cell Diploid Cell
Homologous chromosome

Heredity Phases of Meiosis 1 & 2

Interphase Prophase I Metaphase Anaphase I Telophase

& II I & II & II I & II
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