Micromechanics

Macromechanics

Fibers
Lamina
Laminate
Structure

Matrix
 Micromechanics
The analysis of relationships between
effective composite properties (i.e., stiffness,
strength) and the material properties, relative
volume contents, and geometric arrangement
of the constituent materials.
 Micromechanics - Stiffness
1. Mechanics of materials models –
Simplifying assumptions make it
unnecessary to specify details of stress
and strain distribution – fiber packing
geometry is arbitrary. Use average
stresses and strains.
 Micromechanics - Stiffness
2. Theory of elasticity models -
“Actual” stress and strain distributions are
used – fiber packing geometry taken into
account.
a) Closed form solutions
b) Numerical solutions such as finite element
c) Variational methods (bounds)
 Volume Fractions
Vf
vf   fiber volume fraction
Vc
Vm
vm   matrix volume fraction
Vc
Vv
vv   void volume fraction
Vc
Where
v f  vm  vv  1 (3.2)

Vc  V f  Vm  Vv  composite volume
 Weight Fractions
Wf
wf   fiber weight fraction
Wc
Wm
wm   matrix weight fraction
Wc
Where

Wc  W f  Wm  composite weight
Note: weight of voids neglected
 Densities
W
   density
V
Wc  W f  Wm
  cVc   f V f   mVm

  c   f v f   m vm (3.6)

“Rule of Mixtures” for density

Alternatively,
1
c  (3.8)
wf wm

f m
Eq. (3.2) can be rearranged as
Wf ( Wc  W f )

f m
vv  1  (3.9)
Wc
c
Above formula is useful for void fraction
estimation from measured weights and densities.

Typical void fractions:

Autoclaved cured composite: 0.1% - 1%
Press cured w/o vacuum: 2 - 5%
Measurements typically involve weight fractions,
which are related to volume fractions by

Wf  f Vf  f
wf    vf (3.10)
Wc cVc c
and
Wm  mVm  m
wm    vm (3.12)
Wc cVc c
Representative area elements for idealized square
and triangular fiber packing geometries.

Fiber

s
s
d
s d
s
Square array Triangular array
 Fiber volume fraction – packing
geometry relationships
Square array:
 d
2

vf    (3.14)
4s

When s=d, v f  v f max   0.785 (3.15)
4
 Fiber volume fraction – packing
geometry relationships
Triangular Array:
 d
2

vf    (3.16)
2 3 s


When s=d, v f  v f max   0.907 (3.17)
2 3
 Fiber volume fraction – packing
geometry relationships
• Real composites:
Random fiber packing array
Unidirectional: 0.5  v f  0.8
Chopped: 0.05  v f  0.4
Filament wound: close to theoretical
Photomicrograph of carbon/epoxy composite showing
actual fiber packing geometry at 400X magnification
Voronoi cell and its approximation. (From Yang, H. and Colton,
J.S. 1994. Polymer Composites, 51, 34–41. With permission.)

Random nature of fiber packing geometry in real composites can be

quantified by the use of the Voronoi cell. Each point within the space
of a Voronoi cell for a particular fiber is closer to the center of that fiber
than it is to the center of any other fiber

s
Voronoi cells

Equivalent square
cells, with Voronoi
cell size, s
Typical histogram of Voronoi distances and corresponding Wiebull distribution for
a thermoplastic matrix composite. (From Yang, H. and Colton, J.S. 1994. Polymer
Composites, 51, 34–41. With permission.)
 Elementary Mechanics of Materials
Models for Effective Moduli

• Fiber packing array not specified – RVE

consists of fiber and matrix blocks.
• Improved mechanics of materials models
and elasticity models do take into account
fiber packing arrays.
Assumptions:
1. Area fractions = volume fractions
2. Perfect bonding at fiber/matrix interface –
no slip
3. Matrix is isotropic, fiber can be
orthotropic
4. Fiber and matrix linear elastic
5. Lamina is macroscopically homogeneous,
linear elastic and orthotropic
 Concept of an Effective Modulus of an
Equivalent Homogeneous Material.
Heterogeneous composite
under varying stresses and x3 x3
strains
d 2 2

2 L 2
Stress, 2 Strain,  2
Equivalent homogeneous x
3 x3
material under average
stresses and strains 2 2

2 2
Stress Strain
Representative volume element and simple stress states
used in elementary mechanics of materials models
 Representative volume element and simple stress states
used in elementary mechanics of materials models

Longitudinal normal stress

Transverse normal stress

In-plane shear stress

Average stress over RVE:
1 1
   dV   dA (3.19)
VV AA
Average strain over RVE:
1 1
   dV   dA (3.20)
VV AA
Average displacement over RVE:
1 1
   dV   dA (3.21)
VV AA
 Longitudinal Modulus
RVE under average stress  c1 governed by
longitudinal modulus E1.
Equilibrium:
 c1 A1   f 1 Af   m1 Am (3.22)

Note: fibers are often orthotropic.

Rearranging, we get “Rule of Mixtures” for
longitudinal stress
Static
Equilibrium  c1   f 1v f   m1vm (3.23)
Hooke’s law for composite, fiber and matrix

Stress – strain
 c1  E1 c1
Relations
 f 1  E f 1 f 1 (3.24)

 m1  Em  m1
So that:
E1 c1  E f 1 f 1v f  Em  m1vm (3.25)
Assumption about average strains:
Geometric
Compatibility
 c1   f 1   m1 (3.26)

Which means that,

E1  E f 1v f  Em vm (3.27)

“Rule of Mixtures” – generally quite

accurate – useful for design calculations
 Variation of composite moduli with fiber
volume fraction

Eq. 3.27

Eq. 3.40

Predicted E1 and E2 from elementary mechanics of materials models

Variation of composite moduli with fiber
volume fraction

Comparison of predicted
and measured E1 for
E-glass/polyester. (From
Adams, R.D., 1987.
Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1,
Composites, 206–217.)
 Strain Energy Approach
Uc  U f Um (3.28)

Where strain energy in composite, fiber and

matrix are given by,
1 1
U c    c1 c1dV  E1 c1 Vc
2
(3.29a)
2 Vc 2
1 1
U f    f 1 f 1dV  E f 1  f 1 V f
2
(3.29b)
2 Vf 2
1 1
U m    m1 m1dV  Em1  m1 Vm
2
(3.29c)
2 Vm 2
 Strain energy due to Poisson strain
mismatch at fiber/matrix interface is
neglected.
Let the stresses in fiber and matrix be
defined in terms of the composite stress as:
 f 1  a1 c1
(3.30)
 m1  b1 c1
Subst. in “Rule of Mixtures” for longitudinal
stress:
 c1   f 1v f   m1vm (3.23)
  c1  a1v f  b1vm  c1
Or
a1v f  b1vm  1 (3.31)

Combining (3.30), (3.24) & (3.29) in (3.28),

1 2 vf 2 vm
 a1  b1 (3.32)
E1 Ef1 Em1
Solving (3.31) and (3.32) simultaneously for
E-glass/epoxy with known properties:
 f1
Find a1 and b1, then  1.00
 m1
 Representative volume element and simple stress states
used in elementary mechanics of materials models

Longitudinal normal stress

Transverse normal stress

In-plane shear stress

 Transverse Modulus
RVE under average stress  c 2
Response governed by transverse modulus E2
Geometric compatibility:
 c2   f2   m2 (3.34)

From definition of normal strain,

 c 2   c 2 L2
 f 2   f 2Lf (3.35)

 m2   m2 Lm
Thus, Eq.(3.34) becomes
 c 2 L2   f 2 L f   m 2 Lm (3.36)
Or
 c 2   f 2v f   m 2vm (3.37)

Lf Lm
Where  vf ,  vm ,
L2 L2
1-D Hooke’s laws for transverse loading:
 c 2  E2  c 2
 f 2  E f 2 f 2 (3.38)

 m 2  Em  m 2
Where Poisson strains have been neglected.
Combining (3.37) and (3.38),

 c2   m2
 vf 
f2
vm (3.39)
E2 Ef 2 Em
Assuming that  c2   f2   m2
We get
1 vf vm
  (3.40)
E2 E f 2 Em
- “Inverse Rule of Mixtures” – Not very accurate
- Strain energy approach for transverse loading,
Assume,
 f 2  a2  c 2
(3.41)
 m 2  b2  c 2
Substituting in the compatibility equation (Rule
of mixture for transverse strain), we get
a2 v f  b2 vm  1 (3.42)
Then substituting these expressions for  f2 and
 m 2 in
Uc  U f Um (3.28)

We get
E2  a2 E f 2v f  b2 Em vm
2 2
(3.43)

Solving (3.42) and (3.43) simultaneously for a2

and b2, we get for E-glass/epoxy,
 f2
 5.63
 m2
 Representative volume element and simple stress states
used in elementary mechanics of materials models

Longitudinal normal stress

Transverse normal stress

In-plane shear stress

 In-Plane Shear Modulus, G12
• Using compatibility of shear displacement
and assuming equal stresses in fiber and
matrix:
1 vf vm
  (3.47)
G12 G f 12 Gm
(Not very accurate)
Major Poisson’s Ratio, υ12
• Using compatibility in 1 and 2 directions:
12   f 12v f   m vm (3.45)
(Good enough for design use)
 Design Equations
E1  E f 1v f  Em vm

12   f 12v f   m vm
• Elementary mechanics of materials
Equations derived for G12 and E2 are not
very useful – need to develop improved
models for G12 and E2.
Improved Mechanics of Materials
Models for E2 and G12
Mechanics of materials models refined by
assuming a specific fiber packing array.
Example: Hopkins – Chamis method of
sub-regions

RVE
Convert RVE with circular fiber to equivalent
RVE having square fiber whose area is the same
as the circular fiber.
RVE
Sub
sf A Region A
A
Sub
d s B sf B Region B

A Sub
A Region A

Division of representative volume element into

sub regions based on square fiber having
equivalent fiber volume fraction.
Equivalent Square Fiber:
 
sf 
2
sf 
2
d (from d ) (3.48)
4 4
Size of RVE:

s d (3.49)
4v f
For Sub Region B: s
sf
sf
Following the procedure for the elementary
mechanics of materials analysis of transverse
modulus:
1 1 sf 1 sm
  (3.50)
E B 2 E f 2 s Em s
but
sf sm
 vf ;  1 v f ; (3.51)
s s
So that
Em

1  v f 1  Em E f 2 
EB 2 (3.52)
 For sub regions A and B in parallel,
sf sm
E2  EB 2  Em (3.53)

Or finally
s s

 

E2  Em  1  v f   vf

1  v f 1  Em E f 2 
(3.54)

Similarly,
 

G12  Gm  1  v f   vf

1  v f 1  Gm G f 2 

Simplified Micromechanics Equations (Chamis)
Only used part of the analysis for sub region B
in Eq. (3.52):
Em
 EB 2 
1  v f 1  Em E f 2 
(3.52)

Gm
G12 
1  v f 1  Gm G f 12 
Fiber properties Ef2 and Gf12 in tables inferred
from these equations.
 Semi empirical Models
Use empirical equations which have a
theoretical basis in mechanics
Halpin-Tsai Equations
E2 1  v f
 (3.63)
E m 1  v f
Where


E f Em   1
E Em   
(3.64)
f
And   curve-fitting parameter
  2 for E2 of square array of
circular fibers
  1 for G12

As    Rule of Mixtures
As  0  Inverse Rule of
Mixtures
Tsai-Hahn Stress Partitioning Parameters

let  m2  2 f 2 (3.65)

Get
1 1  v f  2 vm 
    (3.66)
E2 v f   2 vm  E f Em 

Where 2  stress partitioning parameter

(when 2  1.0, get inverse Rule of Mixtures)
Transverse modulus for glass/epoxy according to Tsai-Hahn equation (Eq.
3.66). (From Tsai, S.W. and Hahn, H.T. 1980. Introduction to Composite
Materials. Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster, PA. With permission from
Technomic Publishing Co.)

Eq. 3.66
 Micromechanical Analysis of Composite
Materials Using Elasticity Theory

Micromechanical analysis of composite materials

involve the development of analytical models for
predicting macroscopic composite properties in terms
of constituent material properties and information on
geometry and loading. Analysis begins with the
selection of a representative volume element, or RVE,
which depends on the assumed fiber packing array in
the composite.
Example: Square packing array

RVE
Matrix

Fiber
Due to double symmetry, we only need to
consider one quadrant of RVE

Fiber Matrix
• The RVE is then subjected to uniform stress
or displacement along the boundary. The
resulting boundary value problem is solved
by either stress functions, finite differences
or finite elements.
• Later in this course we will discuss specific
examples of finite difference solutions and
finite element solutions for micromechanics
problems.