Leading and Managing in Nursing
Leadership Theories
THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR
Trait Theories
These theories are sometimes
referred to as the Great Man
theory, from Aristotle’s philosophy
extolling the virtue of being “born”
with leadership traits. Stogdill
(1948) is usually credited as the
pioneer in this school of thought
KEY IDEA
Leaders have a certain set of
physical and emotional
characteristics that are crucial for
inspiring others toward a common
goal. Some theorist believe that
traits are innate and cannot be
learned; other believe that
leadership traits can be developed
in each individual.
 THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR
Situational-Contingency Theories
These theorists believed that leadership
effectiveness depends on the relationship
among
(1) the leader’s task at hand, (2) his or
her interpersonal skills, and (3) the
favorableness of the work situation.
Examples of theory development with
this expanded perspective include
Fiedler’s (1967) Contingency Model, the
Vroom-Yetton (1973) Normative
Decision –Making Model, and House-
Mitchell’s (1974) Path-Goal theory.
KEY IDEA
Three factors are critical: (1) the degree of
trust and respect between leaders and
followers, (2) the task structure denoting
the clarity of goals and the complexity of
problems faced, and (3) the position power
in terms of where the leader was able to
reward followers and exert influence.
Consequently, leaders were viewed as able
to adapt their style according to the
presenting situation.
 THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR
Transformational Theories
Transformational Theories arose late in
the last millennium when globalization
and other factors caused organizations to
fundamentally reestablish themselves.
Many of these attempts were failures, but
great attention was given to those leaders
who effectively transformed structures,
human resources, and profitability
balanced with quality.
KEY IDEA
Transformational leadership refers to a
process whereby the leader attends to the
needs and motives of followers so that the
interaction raises each to high levels of
motivation and morality. The leader is a
role model who inspires followers through
displayed optimism, provides intellectual
stimulation and encourages follower
creativity
Motivational Theories
THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR KEY IDEA
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow People are motivated by a hierarchy of
human needs, beginning with
physiological needs, then progressing to
safety, social, esteem and self-actualizing
needs. In this theory, when the need for
food, water, air, and other life-sustaining
elements is met, the human spirit reaches
out to achieve affiliation with others,
which promotes the development of self-
esteem, competence, achievement, and
creativity. Lower-level needs, will always
drive behavior before higher-level needs
will be addressed.
 THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR KEY IDEA

Two-Factor Theory Hygiene factors, such as working

conditions, salary, status, and
Herzberg (1991)
security, motivate workers by
meeting safety and security needs
and avoiding job dissatisfaction.
 THEORY/ CONTRIBUTOR
Expectancy Theory
Vroom (1964)
expectancy theory of motivation
KEY IDEA
Felt needs of individuals cause their
behavior. In the work setting, this
motivated behavior is increased if a
person perceives a positive
relationship between effort and
performance.
 Management Theory Key Aspects
Scientific Management Focus is on goals and productivity. The
organization is viewed as a machine to be run
Gulick & Urwick (1937), efficiently to increase production. Managers
must closely supervise the work to assure
Moony (1939), maximum efficiency. Worker must have
Taylor (1911) proper tools and equipment. There is a focus
on training the worker to work most
efficiently, and performance incentives are
used. Time and motion studies are the vehicle
for determining how to do and organize the
work in the most efficient manner.
 Management Theory Key Aspects
Bureaucratic Focus is on superior-subordinate
Management communication transmitted from the top down
via a clear chain of command, a hierarchy of
authority, and a division of labor chain. Uses
Weber (1864, reported rational, impersonal management process.
in Mommsen, W.J.
1992) Uses explicit rules and regulations for
governing activities, focuses on exacting work
processes and technical competence. Uses
merit and skill as basis for promotion/reward.
Emphasizes lifetime career service and salaried
managers.
 Management Theory Key Aspects
Administrative Focus is on the science of management and
Management principles of organization applicable in any
setting.
Shortell & Identifies need for Planning, Organizing,
Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting
Kaluzny (2006) and Budgeting (POSDCORB).
Commonly referred to as management process
that involves planning. Organizing,
coordinating, and controlling.
Concerned with the optimal approach for
administrators to achieve economic efficiency.
 Management Theory Key Aspects
Human Relations Focuses on empowerment of the individual
worker as the source of control, motivation, and
productivity in organizations.
Argyris (1964),
Hawthorne studies at Western Electric plant in
Barnard (1938), Likert Chicago led to belief that human relations
(1967), McGregor between workers and managers and among
(1960), Rothlisberger workers were the main determinants of
& Dickson (1939) efficiency.
The Hawthorne effect refers to the phenomena
of how being observed or studied results in a
change of behavior.
Emphasizes the participatory decision-making
increases worker autonomy.
Provides training to improve work.
MAIN CONTRIBUTOR Key Aspects
Abraham Maslow (1908 – Motivation occurs when needs are
1970) not met. Certain needs have to be
satisfied first, beginning with
Hierarchy of Needs physiological needs, then safety and
security needs, then social needs,
followed by self-esteem needs and
then self-actualization needs. Needs
at one level must be satisfied before
one is motivated by needs at the
next higher level of needs.
Main Contributor Key Aspects
Frederick Herzberg Hygiene-maintenance factors include adequate
(1964) salary status, job security, quality of
supervision, safe and tolerable working
Two-factor theory: conditions, and relationships with others.
Hygiene- When these factors are absent, they can be
Maintenance factors sources of job dissatisfaction. When they are
and Motivator factors present, job satisfaction can be avoided.
However, these factors alone will not lead to
job satisfaction.
Main Contributor Key Aspects
Douglas McGregor Leaders must direct and control because
(1906 – 1964) motivation results from reward and
punishment. Employees prefer security,
Theory X direction, and minimal responsibility, and they
need coercion and threats to get the job done.

Theory Y
Main Contributor Key Aspects
William Ouchi (1981) Uses collective decision-making, long term
employment, mentoring, holistic concern, and
Theory Z use of quality circles to manage service and
quality.
This a humanistic style of motivational based
on the study of Japanese organizations.