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• Analyzers – auto-analyzers
• Allows a sample stream to flow from the
process equipment into an analyzer,
sometimes conditioning the sample stream in
between such as reducing pressure or
changing the sample temperature.
Destructive and Non-destructive
Analysis
Destructive Analysis: sample stream is modified by the
analyzer
• e.g. reducing the pressure, changing the sample temperature, addition of
reagents
• Sample stream cannot be returned to the process
• Non-destructive analysis
Methods used for Detection
When a "detector"
The infrared light is
chamber absorbs some
emitted and passes
of the infrared The combination of
through the sample
radiation, it heats up output voltages from
gas, a reference gas
and expands. This the detector chambers
with a known mixture
causes a rise from the sample gas
of the gases in
in pressure within the can then be compared
question and then
sealed vessel that can to the output voltages
through the "detector"
be detected either with from the reference
chambers containing
a chamber.
the pure forms of the
pressure transducer or
gases in question.
with a similar device.
DUST MONITORING SYSTEMS
Two basic methods of dust emission reporting
Mass concentration
Mass flow (kg/hr)
(mg/cubic meter)
Assumes a
Absolute measure of
homogeneous mixture
dust emission
of dust particles and air
Mass concentration
Measurement of mass concentration depends factors that
change the volumetric characteristics of the carrier gas:
• standard practice is to report the data as a mass per normal cubic meter
of dry gas, at a specified level of oxygen.
Drawbacks
• A simple measurement becomes a complex
measurement
• Cost of measuring the gas normalization
parameters is greater than the cost of the
primary dust measurement
– Schedule A processes: normalization data is
already available as part of the gas analysis
requirements
– Schedule B processes: which are only required to
measure dust, the problem becomes severe
Mass Flow
The measurement is related to mass concentration.
• Does not depend in any way on gas temperature, pressure, oxygen or water
vapor values, or on any form of dilution of the exhaust gases.
Detector
Recorder-
computer
Carrier Gas
Column
pH = -log10 aH+
Measures the
potential difference
between the
electrodes and
converts it to a
display of pH
Buffer Solutions and Calibration
• Calibration is done using solutions which
– Have a precisely known pH value
– Are relatively insensitive to contamination from acidic and
alkaline species (i.e. buffer solutions)
• Two different buffers are used for calibration which indicate
electrode sensitivity
CONDUCTIVITY ANALYZERS
• Conductivity of a solution depends on:
– concentration of ions
– mobility of ions
– valence no. of ions
– temperature
• Two types of conductivity measurements:
– contacting
– inductive
Contacting Conductivity
• Two metal electrodes in contact
with the solution are used
• Alternating current is applied at
optimal frequency to the
electrodes and output voltage is
measured
C25 – conductivity at 25 C
Ct – conductivity at T C
- linear temperature coefficient
High Purity Water (dilute NaCl)
Correction
• Assumes that the sample is
pure water contaminated
with NaCl
• Measured conductivity is
the sum of conductivity of
pure water and the
conductivity from Na+ and
Cl- ions
Conductivity of
conductivity of Add conductivity
pure water at ‘t’
Point 1 – raw Na+ and Cl- at ‘t’ of pure water at
– raw
conductivity at is converted to 25 deg. C -
conductivity =
temp. ‘t’ degree conductivity at corrected
conductivity of
C 25 deg. C (point conductivity
Na+ and Cl- at ‘t’
3) (point 4)
(point 2)
Cation Conductivity (dilute HCl)
Correction
• Used in steam electric power industry
• Assumes the sample is pure water
contaminated with HCl
• Contribution of water to the overall
conductivity depends on the total amount of
acid present