Business Research

BUSINESS RESEARCH
Dr. Saurabh Dixit

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 2
UNIT-I
 Fundamentals of statistics Descriptive
Statistics: Measures of Central Tendency
and descrpersoion. Index numbers and
time series; correlation analysis and
regression analysis

Unit-II
 Foundation of Research; Concept, types
of research, planning of research, types of
variables in research, scaling and
measurement techniques

UNIT-III
 Doing research; Sampling: methods of
data collection, analysis, processing of
data, statistical analysis of data
multivariate analysis

Unit-IV
 Introduction to probability distribution;
hypothesis testing, introduction to some
common statistical tools used in business
research (T-test, z-test, F-test, chi square
test, multivariate analysis including
ANOVA)

Unit-V
 Report writing: Types of report; planning
report writing; research report format;
documentat6ion-footnotes and
bibliography; writing and typing a repot

Response Books
 Krishnaswami, O.R., and Ranganatham, M.
Methodology of research in social sciences, 2/e,
Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House
 Punch, Keith, F. Survey research-the basics, New
Delhi: Sage Publications
 Walliman, Nicholas, Social research methods,
New Delhi: Sage Publication
 Chandan, J. S, Statistics for business and
economics, New Delhi; Vikas Publishing House
Private Limited
History of Tourism
 Phases
 Ancient Tourism
 Mass Tourism
 Industry
 Scope of Research in Tourism

Statements
 Visions
 Mission
 Punch line

Task
 Collect vision, mission and punch line of

any 5 tourism organizations.

Unit-II
 Foundation of Research; Concept, types
of research, planning of research, types of
variables in research, scaling and
measurement techniques

Basic queries
 Why should I?
 What are benefits to a PGDM student?
 Do I have scope in this field?

Inventions in tourism
 GDS - market Survey

Key words
 Universe
 Subject
 Sample
 Research Design
 Market survey
 SPSS
 E-view

Key words
 Research Methodology

Research
 Research can be defined to be search for
knowledge or any systematic
investigation to establish facts. The
primary purpose for applied research (as
opposed to basic research) is
discovering, interpreting and the
development of methods and systems for
the advancement of human knowledge on
a wide variety of scientific matters of our
world and the universe.
Research
 Re-search

Research
 Systematic study of the subject

 E.g. tourism, tourist traffic, accommodation
requirement during commonwealth games

Research
 The word research derives from the

French ‘recherche’, from rechercher, to
search closely where "chercher" means
"to search".

Research
 Olin Levi Warner Research helping the

torch of knowledge (1896).

Business Research……..
Business Research deals with the business
phenomena. It studies behaviours of
employees as members of business entity,
and their feeling responses, attitude under
different circumstances.
Business Research
 Business Research is carried on both for
discovering new facts and verification of
old ones.
 ( Vaj.,P36)

Objects of business Research
1. Academic objects
2. Utilitarian objects

Motivating factors……..
 Curiosity about unknown

 Desire to understand the cause and effect
of wide spread business problem
 Appearance of novel and unanticipated
situations
 Desire to discover new and test ole
scientific procedures as an efficient way to
gain useful and fundamental knowledge (V,p-39)

Basic assumptions of research
 Existence of cause and effect relationship

 Existence of sequence or law in business
activities
 Possibility of detached study
 Existence of ideal types
 Possibility of representative sample
 (V,p-39)

Qualities of good research worker..
1. General qualities
2. Specific qualities

Qualities of good research worker
1. General qualities
 Scientific attitude
 Imagination and insight
 Perservance
 A quick grasping power
 Clarity of thinking

Qualities of good research worker
• Specific qualities
Knowledge of the subject
Knowledge of the technique of research
Personal taste in the study
Familiarity about the informants
Unbiased attitude
 (V,p-48)

Questions
 What is scientific attitude?

Research
 Preamble
 Research Methods
 Collection of data
 Statistical measures
 Presentation of data

Selection of Problem
 Feasibility of topic
 Financial constraints
 Resources
 Time frame

Hypothesis
 A hypothesis is a tentative generalization,

the validity of which remains to be tested.
 George A. Lundberg
 A proposition which can be put to test to
determine validity.
 Goode and Hatt

Hypothesis
 Theory is elaborate hypothesis.

 William H. george

survey
 Survey of India
Survey of India, The National Survey and Mapping Organization of the
country under the Department of Science & Technology, is the
OLDEST SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT OF THE GOVT. OF INDIA. It
was set up in 1767 and has evolved rich traditions over the years. In
its assigned role as the nation's Principal Mapping Agency, Survey
of India bears a special responsibility to ensure that the country's
domain is explored and mapped suitably, provide base maps for
expeditious and integrated development and ensure that all
resources contribute with their full measure to the progress,
prosperity and security of our country now and for generations to
come.

Vision
 Survey Of India will take a leadership role
in providing user focused, cost effective,
reliable and quality geospatial data,
information and intelligence for meeting
the needs of national security, sustainable
national development, and new
information markets.

Mission
 Survey Of India dedicates itself to the
advancement of theory, practice, collection
and applications of geospatial data, and
promotes an active exchange of information,
ideas, and technological innovations
amongst the data producers and users who
will get access to such data of highest
possible resolution at an affordable cost in
the near real-time environment.
Data
 Primary
 Secondary

Sources of Data…..
 Documentary Sources
Books
Reports of Survey
Memories/ Autobiographies/ Life Histories and

Letters
Accounts of Travels

Official Published Data
Other Un-published data
Historical Accounts
News paper
Journals
Magazines
Net
 Field Sources
Direct observation
Information from informants
Information from witness

Synopsis
 A brief or condensed statement giving a
general view of some subject.
 A compendium of heads or short
paragraphs giving a view of the whole.

Synopsis
I.T. as a strategic tool for holistic
development of Small and Medium
Enterprises through Tourism in N. C. T.
of New Delhi

Synopsis
 CHAPTER SCHEME
 Introduction

 Research design

 NCT of Delhi: Geo-political personality and economy

 Tourism Trends, Tourist plant Facilities and potential for tourism development

 Small and medium tourism trade enterprises operating in NCT of Delhi vis-à-vis use of
information technology

 Interpretation of data & research findings and development of a model for holistic tourism
development with use of IT by SMEs

 Conclusion and Recommendations

 References and Bibliography

synopsis
1. Introduction to research methodology
2. Selection and formulation of research problem
3. Research design and plan
4. Experimental design
5. Sampling and Sampling Strategy and Plan
6. Measurement and scaling techniques
7. Data collection methods and techniques
8. Testing of Hypothesis
9. Statistical Techniques for Processing and Analysis of Data
10. Analysis, Interpretation and Drawing Inferences
11. Report Writing
( M.S. Sridhar, ISRO, http://www.slideshare.net/mssridhar/introduction-to-research-methodology-presentation, 02nd Feb.’2010)

Internet resources
http://www.slideshare.net/mssridhar/introduc
tion-to-research-methodology-presentation

Research design……
 Introduction
 Selection of Problem
 Review of Literature
 Aims and Objectives
 Methodology:
 Modus Operandi:
 Personal contact programme with preparation of
the report
 Limitations of study
Research design
 Future Possibilities and Trends
 References

Review of Literature
 Fridgen (1991) devoted few paragraphs on
Electronic Technology in tourism industry.
He mentioned household, entertainment
and satellite technology used in the
industry.

Aims and Objectives
 To evaluate the role of information
technology in tourism promotion.
 To understand the business mechanization
lacunae involved in tourism promotion.
 To evaluate the role of information
technology in tourism development.
 To analyse and assess the impact of
information technology on visiting tourists.
Methodology:
 Mailed and e-mailed questionnaires. Use of Likert Scale- Five point scaling was used
in most of the questions.
 Observation – Observing the travel trade business mechanization through information
technology.
 Assessment and verification of business records of tourism organizations including the
reports of Market Research Division, Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India.
 Analysis and interpretation of Publications of Govt. and Non-Govt. Organizations etc.
providing useful information.
 Projection of findings through maps, figures and photographs to present the research
findings more precisely.
 Research articles, news and views were scanned from newspapers and magazines in
order to know the changing trends particularly in NCT of Delhi.
 Personal contact programme with different small and medium category enterprises to
know about the significance of information technology in their overall business turnover
and consumer satisfaction.
 Pre-arranged Interviews with officials of the Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India and
Delhi Tourism.
Report Organization
 Chapter-wise details

Planning of Research/Survey
Check list
 Napkin plan
 Hypothesis
 Research methodology
 Pilot Survey
 Statistical Tools
 Library Resources

Limitations of the study
 The research data were collected through tourists, hoteliers, lodge
owners, travel agents having wide variation in educational
background and poor grasping power to understand technical
terminology devices.
 In view of large number of tourism stakeholders the views
expressed by respondents have different perception and it was
difficult to keep them at par.
 Tourism and Travel industry is sensitive and gets affected due to
political, social, diplomatic, epidemic, economical problems. Thus
the data collected may be not useful for long-term planning.
 Information Technology is growing rapidly and trends are changing
very fast. So, it is not possible to cover all aspects of technological
changes e.g. pager got completely eliminated by cell phone.

References
 World Tourism Organization, (2001), E-business for Tourism , Madrid,
Spain.
 Agrwala Kamlesh N., Amit Lal, Deeksha Agarwala (2000), Business on
the net- An introduction to the what and How of e-commerce,
Macmillan, New Delhi.
 Bajpai S.R. (1993), Methods of Social Survey and Research,
Kitabghar, Kanpur.
 Boniface, Brian and Chris, Cooper, (2001), Worldwide Destinations-the
Geography of Travel and Tourism, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford.
 Martin, Brackbury and Zorda, Jose Luis (1999), Marketing Tourism
Destinations Online – Strategies for the information Age, WTO, Madrid,
Spain.
 Buhalis (2006), Website on e-business, University of Surrey, U.K.

eg
 Tourism in Madhya Pradesh Resource
Analysis and Promotional Measures

Types of Research Designs
 Exploratory Research
 Designed to generate basic knowledge, clarify relevant
issues uncover variables associated with a problem,
uncover information needs, and/or define alternatives for
addressing research objectives.
 A very flexible, open-ended process.
 Descriptive Research (who, what, where, how)
 Designed to provide further insight into the research problem
by describing the variables of interest.
 Can be used for profiling, defining, segmentation, estimating,
predicting, and examining associative relationships.
 Causal Research (If-then)
 Designed to provide information on potential cause-and-
effect relationships.
 Most practical in marketing to talk about associations or
impact of one variable on another.

Descriptive research….
 Descriptive research, also known as statistical
research, describes data and characteristics about the
population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive
research answers the questions who, what, where, when
and how.
 Although the data description is factual, accurate and
systematic, the research cannot describe what caused a
situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used to
create a causal relationship, where one variable affects
another. In other words, descriptive research can be said
to have a low requirement for internal validity. .(
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_research, 02/02/2010)

Descriptive research..
The description is used for frequencies, averages

and other statistical calculations. Often the best
approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is
to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative
research often has the aim of description and
researchers may boner follow-up with
examinations of why the observations exist and
what the implications of the findings are. .(
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_research, 02/02/2010)

Descriptive research
In short descriptive research deals with

everything that can be counted and studied.
But there are always restrictions to that. Your
research must have an impact to the lives of the
people around you. For example, finding the
most frequent disease that affects the children of
a town. The reader of the research will know
what to do to prevent that disease thus, more
people will live a healthy life .(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_research,
02/02/2010)

Types and Characteristics of Exploratory Studies
 Literature Search
 Conceptual literature
 Trade literature
 Published statistics
 Library homepage (www.uah.edu/library)
 Analysis of Selected Cases

 Intensive study of related cases or past activities
 May be internal or external
 Can help provide clues as to how other units or
companies have dealt with similar issues

Types and Characteristics of Exploratory Studies
 Experience Surveys (a.k.a., depth interviews)
 Knowledgeable people with varying points of view
 Unstructured and informal interviews
 Respondent free to choose issues to be discussed
 Focus Groups
 8 to 10 people at one time
 Relatively homogeneous groups
 Multiple, heterogeneous groups
 Group dynamics
 Moderator is key
 Relies on general topical guide with plenty of time for
interaction
Types and Characteristics of Descriptive Studies
 Cross-Sectional Study
 Easily the most common type of research project.
 Typically involves conducting a survey of a sample of
population elements at one point in time.
 Useful because it provides a quick snapshot of what’s going
on with the variables of interest for our research problem.
 Longitudinal Study
 An investigation that involves taking repeated measures
over time.
 Useful for conducting trend analysis, tracking changes in
behavior over time (e.g., brand switching, levels of
awareness, turnover) and monitoring long-term effects of
marketing activities (e.g., market share, pricing effects)
 True panel vs. omnibus panel
Causal Research Designs
 Evidence to Support Causation

 Concomitant variation
 If X is supposed to cause Y, then the two variables must move
together.
 If one variable changes, we should observe a resulting change
in the other.
 Time order of occurrence
 If X is supposed to cause Y, then changes in X must precede
changes in Y.
 Elimination of other possible causes
 If X causes Y, no other factor could have reasonably caused
the change in Y at that moment.
 Must hold all other variables constant.

Causal Research Designs
 Experiments are the best way to satisfy elements of causation.

 May be Field Experiment or Laboratory Experiment
 Tradeoff between realism versus control
 Examples of experimentation in marketing
 Market test (test marketing)
 Advertising response (recall, affect, attitude toward ad
elements)
 Promotional design (consumer response to promotional
deals, incentives, tie-ins
 Store layout and design
 Product positioning
 Color tracking and package design

Research Methods
1. Social Survey
2. Case study
3. Experiment Method
1. Trial and error exp.
2. Observation study
3. Natural experiment
4. Ex-post facto technique
4. Statistical methods
 Inter-disciplinary approach
Statistical methods
 Definition
 Characteristics
 Basis of statistical analysis
 Regularity and Inertia of large numbers
 Functions of statistics
 Limitations
 Importance of statistical methods

Inter-disciplinary approach
 meaning
 Need

Collection of Data………
 Design of Sample
 Sampling Method basis
 How to select a sample
 Advantages
 Types of sampling
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Quota sampling
Multistage sampling
Convenience sampling
Selected sample
 Size of sample
 Problems of representative sample
 Testing the reliability of sample
 Use of sampling

 Schedule
Meaning
Purpose
Sequence of questions
Contents
Limitations

 Mailed questionnaire
Types
Form
Pre-testing
Problems
Reliability and validity
Organization of enquiry
Advantages
Limitations
 Narrative Interview
Purpose
Kinds
Structured Interview
Unstructured
Focused
Repetitive
Preparation for interview

Techniques of interview
Role of the interview
Validity of information
Problems in getting response
Limitations
Importance

 Observation
Kinds
 Participant
 Non-Participant
 Controlled
 Non-Controlled
Organization of field observation study
Limitations

 Documentary Sources
What is a document
Kinds of documents
Limitations of personal documents
Published documents
Limitations of published documents
Demographic data

Statistical Measures…….
 Classification and tabulation

 Measures of Central Tendency
 Measures of variability
 Correlation
 Theory of attributes and association
 Chi-square and goodness of fit

Scaling Techniques…
 Scaling Techniques
Need for scaling
Measurement of attitude
Measurement of Institutional Bahaviour

Scaling Techniques…
 Presentation of Data
Diagrams
Graphs

Scaling Techniques
The Report
Introduction
Purpose
Content
Methodology
Footnotes
Appendices
Analysis
Problem of communication

Data Processing
 Analysis
 Synthesis
Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P.

81
The Growing Role of Focus Groups
 Goal of focus group research: learn and

understand what people have to say and why.
 Find out how participants feel about a product, concept,
idea, organization, etc.;
 How it fit into their lives;
 Their emotional involvement with it
 May be conducted alone or as part of a
broader project
 May be use to define issues or to confirm
findings from survey research.

Requirements for Focus Groups
 Good group of information-rich participants
 How many people?
 How many groups?
 Characteristics of participants
 Discussion guide and outline
 Ground rules
 Agenda
 Guiding questions
 Qualified Moderator
 Controls flow
 Stimulates discussion
 Analysis and Report
Good Moderator Characteristics
 Must be able to break down barriers; get subjects to open up within first 10 minutes
 Must be a quick learner
 Good listener
 Absorb content
 Gauge personalities
 Adapt quickly
 Must be in control, but not dominating (guide rather than lead)
 Must appear to be neither an expert nor naive
 Must be flexible to allow for free flow of discussion
 Don’t concentrate too rigidly on the moderator guide
 Keep the big picture in perspective
 Know what is important
 When to move on

Facilitating Group Dynamics
 Use a introductions to set the tone
 Use only first names in introductions
 Avoid job titles and positions, unless necessary
 State your purpose and establish position as an objective, unbiased
party
 Encourage everyone to participate; no right or wrong answers
 Use an ice breaker to get everyone comfortable
 State ground rules, procedural details
 Ask for permission to tape if possible
 Ensure confidentiality/anonymity
 Report to contain summary of group, not individuals
 Use “write-down” method to allow for both introverts and extroverts to
have input, and to “lock” people into their own opinions (avoids too
much group think)

Handling Problems in the Focus Group
 Confusing Concept or Discussion Topic
 Break the concept into components that are easier to understand
 Use the confusion as a discussion point (ask for their interpretation, then
attempt to resolve)
 Dead Subject (no discussion initiative)
 Play one person off the other.
 Use projective techniques
 What color do you most closely associate with …. ? Why?
 What animal does ______ remind you of? Why?
 What type of people might use…? Why?
 Lively Subject (everyone talking, often at once)
 Assert leadership role and take charge
 Promise more discussion time later
 Suggest that everyone wants to hear all opinions, which is easier done one at a
time
 Use “write-down” techniques to quiet the group down

Handling Problems in the Focus Group (cont’d)
 The Talkative Member

 Leverage his/her energy to you benefit
 Ask the rest of the group to respond to (agree/disagree with)
what the talkative member said
 Call on someone else specifically when asking questions
 Say, “Don’t let “Ed” do all the talking, I’d like to hear from
someone else….”
 Silent Members
 Call on them by name (“John, how do you feel about…”)
 Reinforce the value of their responses
 Do this several times in a row and they will open up voluntarily
 Probe their short answers for more detailed ones
 “Tell me more about…”
 “That is interesting, why do you feel that way/”
The Moderator/Discussion Guide
 Purpose is threefold:
 Outline flow of discussion
 Defines issues
 Sets ground rules
 Provides time constraints
 Provides information for participants
 Serves as a guide for the final report
 May be very basic or extremely detailed depending on formality
of the research.
 Very exploratory research will require a simple guide
 More extensive analyses need more structure

Contents of The Discussion Guide
 Introductory Statements (typically 10-15 minutes)
 Moderator introduction
 Respondent introductions
 Objectives/Statement of Purpose
 Ground rules
 Key Discussion Questions (45-50 minutes)
 Practice using multiple types of questions to elicit more detailed
responses
 Think about the purpose of your questions:
 Collect information?
 Maintain flow?
 Lead respondent?
 Wrap-up
 Clarify, Verify, Summarize
 Ask “All things considered” type questions to get them to summarize
Thoughts on Discussion Questions
 Begin with simple, easy to answer questions
 Place more specific, sensitive questions toward the mid-point in
the discussion
 Don’t want to force them to work too hard early or scare them
 Ensure that questions are short and deal with a single issue
 Utilize vocabulary that is consistent with the respondents’
 Include questions that the respondents would reasonably have
knowledge of and ability to answer
 Remember to keep the tone of the questions conversational,
not accusational, confrontational, or critical of individuals
 Don’t ask questions that would potentially single one person out
for inspection
 Be cautious about giving examples (might lead too much)
 Use parallel or similar questions to test commitment to positions
Activities to Engage Participants
 List generation
 Ranking or evaluating items
 May be abstract ideas or concrete objects
 Sentence completion
 Creating analogies
 Picture or word sort
 Create a collage of your feelings
 Drawing a picture or ideal image
 Role playing or enactment
 Personal experiences
 Hypotheticals
 Divide group for debate
 Monitor and follow-up on Nonverbals

 PLANNING FOR RESEARCH/ SEURVEY
 Selection of the problem
Researcher must be deeply interested
Problem should be allied with chain of thinking
Topic should be within manageable limits
Topic should possess preferable some direct
utility
Topic should be practically feasible

 Preliminary preparation
 Researcher must acquaint himself with all
the material that is available on the matter
 Selection of sample
 Deciding the method of study
 Nature of information to be collected
 Organization of Survey
 Reports
 Protesting or pilot study: After theoretical
preparation, some sort of survey is
necessary to gain specific knowledge of
the subject. It will also give idea about
practical problems arises during the final
survey. These trial surveys are known as
pilot study, protesting, test tube survey etc.

 Cost Estimate: It may include items like purchase
of books, stationery, files, staff payment,
conveyance or miscellaneous expenditure.
 Time Estimate: According to National Opinion
Research Centre ( NORC) of America for an
average size survey 06 weeks are required for
start of a regular survey until the data are ready
for final form. Two to three weeks are required
before the last set is received. ( Baj.., pg-85)

 SOCIAL SURVEY IN INDIA
 National council of applied economic research (NCAER)
Gokhle Institute of Pune and Indian Statistical Institute (ISI)
have done remarkable work in social survey in India.
 Following are the major shortcomings of survey in India:-
 Majority of surveys are small, unsystematic and unscientific.
 There is lack of co-ordinations.
 Most of the survey never goes to the printing press.
 No attempt has been made at the standardization of the units
of the research study, schedules and questionnaires etc.
 ( Baj.., pg-91)

 MERITS OF SURVEY
 Survey has got various merits. Hence, it is used by
majority of research scholars/ organizations. Few are:-
Direct contact: Researcher is in position to see the respondent in
survey.
Greater objectivity: Data are not influenced by any one. The
presence of field workers eliminates this possibility.
Brings various problems into limelight: Survey brings into
limelight a number of problems and propositions that would not have
been possible for pure theoretical analysis.
Wide use: In case of social sciences where experiments based
methods is not easily possible researcher use survey method.
 (Baj.., pg-93)
 CASE STUDY
 P. V. young says - “Case study is a method of
exploring and analyzing life of a social unit, be
that a person, a family an institution, culture
group or even entire community.” A “case study
is a way of organizing social data so as to
preserve the unitary character of the social
object being studied. Expressed somewhat
differently it is an approach which views any
social unit as a whole.”- Goode and Hatt
 “The case study is a form of qualitative analysis
involving the very careful and complete observation of
a person, a situation or an institution.” – Biesanz and
Biesanz
 Goode and Hatt suggested the following four
measures to keep the wholeness of the unit:-
A broad array of data should be collected about the unit.
Researcher should try to study the whole unit as a
representative type or index and not purely as individual
unit.
It covers wide life cycle of time.
 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS IN CASE STUDY:
 Totally of the being: The unit has to be studied as a
whole.
 Underlying unity: apparent diversity among
different units there is an underlying unity.
 Complexity of social phenomena: Social
phenomena is more subjective. It is very complex
also.
 Affected by time: Social phenomena is influenced
by time.
 SOURCE OF CASE DATA
 Personal documents: Diary,
autobiography, memories, letters etc.
 Life history

 CASE STUDY AND STATISTICAL METHODS
 Case study differs from statistics. Main differences are given below:-
 Case Study
 Statistical
 Selection of cases is not based on samples
 Based on sample
 Consider few cases and aims to study more intensive.
 Inertia of large numbers.
 Intensive in nature.
 Extensive in nature
 Generalizations are based on commonsense inferences.
 Subject to rigid mathematical treatment
 Lay greater stress on emotional side of social phenomena
 ---
 It is based on description of life situation.
 Tries to measure quantitatively.


 Similarities
 Case Study and
 Statistical
 Data is compared
 Data is compared e.g. correlation, covariance
 Tries to locate variation in the reaction
 Tries to locate variation in the reaction e.g.
variability.
 LIMITATIONS IN CASE STUDY:
 This method is loose and unsystematic.
 There is scope for errors.
 Time and money required for case study.
 It does not give impersonal, non-ethnic,
universal, non-practical, repetitive aspect
of phenomena. ( Read Bain)
 Case situation is seldom comparable.
 IMPROVEMENT IN CASE STUDY METHOD
 The subject may be seen as a specimen in a cultural
series.
 The unique role of family group transmitting the
culture must be recognized properly.
 The social situation must be carefully and
continuously specified.
 Life history material itself be organised and
conceptualised. ( john Dollard: Criteria for life History)
 (Baj, pg-105)
 IMPORTANCE OF CASE STUDY
 It helps in formulating a valid hypothesis.
 It is helpful in framing questionnaire.
 It helps in stratification of sample.
 It is helpful in locating the deviant cases.
 It enlarges the personal experience of a
researcher.
 It helps to find out significance of recorded data.
 (Baj.., pg-108)
 EXPERIMENT METHOD
 It is a method of testing the hypothesis.
(Jahoda and other: Research methods in
social relations)


 Types of experiments
 Trial and experiment: It is earliest form of experiment. Researcher does
not prepare a structured plan. He prepares a hypothesis and tries to test it.
 Controlled observation study: This includes observation of the phenomena
under controlled conditions & therefore comes nearer to laboratory type
experiment.
 Natural experiments: natural experiments are also called as field
experiments. This experiment is conducted in natural settings.
 Ex-post facto Experiment: This method is used to study varying influence
of two identical factors.
 Laboratory Experiment: In laboratory experiments investigators creates
situation with the exact conditions he wants to have and in which he
controls some and manipulate other variables. (Leon Festinger: Research
Methods in behavioural Science)

 PLANNING AN EXPERIMENT
 Selecting the problem: All types of problems cannot be
studies by experiment method. Study of various advertising
techniques for tourism, training methods, effects of group
decisions in a travel agency, can be cited few illustrations
of problems have been studied under experimental
method.
 Selecting of setting: Here, we select representative setting.
If some one is interested to study effect of democratic
management in a travel agency. He has to select a
representative travel agency. Researcher has the power to
manipulate variables in an experiment.
 Pilot Study: Pilot study is necessary for good planning,
because it brings out problems researcher going to face
during real time research.
 Research Design: It is the most crucial part of the research.
 Problems of Co-operation: Co-operation from the people
under investigation is very difficult to achieve. Following
approaches are useful to gain cooperation:-
Participation on payment basis
Preliminary consultation with people
Combined/Joint planning
 ( Baj.., page-120)

 DIFFICULTIES IN SOCIAL
EXPERIMENTS
 Difficulties in setting
 Difficulties in co-operation
 Difficulties in control

 VALIDITY OF RESULTS
 The uncertainty OF practical application at
times leads to serious doubts about the
validity of experimental method.
 ( Baj.., page-124)

 MERITS OF EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
 Permits determination of cause and effect relationships more clearly,
 It is more precise and accurate: As variables are under study are
manipulated leaving others uncharged we can locate with precision
the effect of varying degree of stimulus.
 Best way to test hypothesis:
 Universally acclaimed as the best method: “Through careful
measurement better theorizing, the use if control group and other
aspects of improved experimental design the practical problems of
social action can be solved with greater certainlty, with greater
accuracy, sometimes with greater efficiency than through common
sense tyrial and error method.”- French thinker
 (Baj.., page-125)

 STATISTICAL METHODS
 Statistics is improved form of mathematics.
 INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH
 Interdisciplinery approach in social science is advocated
by various thinkers like Dr. Alexender Goldenweiser,
Howard B. Woolston Thomson, Person etc.
 Merits for interdisciplinary approach
 Helps to study phenomena as a whole.
 Helps to deal with the problem of overspecialization
 Helps in securing objectivity
 LIMITATIONS
 The study becomes haphazard
 Difficult for researcher of different branches to work
together
 (Baj, 143)
 Statistical methods are often used by govt. as-well-as
private organizations for forecasting, exploring, and
controlling purposes. (Gupta, pg-03)
 Numbers play essential role in statistics. Numbers
provide raw material to solve statistical problems. (Gupta,
pg-03)
 The word statistics refers to quantitative
information or methods deals with
numbers. (Gupta, pg-03)
 Yule and Kendell defined statistics – “ By
Statistics we mean qualitative data
affected to a marked extent by multiplicity
of causes.”

 CHARACTERISTICS OF STATISTCs
 Aggregate of facts
 Numerically expressed
 Affected by multiplicity of causes
 Enumerated or estimated according to reasonable
standards
 Collected in Systematic manner
 Collected for predetermined propose
 Should be placed in relation to each other
 (Gupta, pg-08)
 Statistical methods
 There are five stages in statistical
investigation:-
Collection
Organization
Presentation
Interpretation


 STATISTCIS: ART OR SCIENCE
 Statistics as a science is not like exact
science like chemistry, physics etc. It may
also be regarded as art due to it’s
involvement of application of given method
to obtain facts, derive results. (Gupta, pg-
03)

 FUNCTIONS OF STATISTCIS
 To present facts in definite form
 To simplify the problem
 To compare data
 To Formulate and test hypothesis
 To formulate suitable policies

 APPLICATIONS
 To speculate tourism industry in 2010
commonwealth games.
 To find out potential and prospects of
accessible tourism in India.
 To find out accommodation required
during Commonwealth games in New
Delhi.
 LIMITATIONS
 Results are true only on average
 It is only one method of studying problem
 Does not deal with individual
measurements
 Deals with quantitative data only
 Can be misused.
 (Gupta, pg-18)
What is Included in Typical Reports
 Depends on type of report desired
 Most focus group reports are designed to answer the
following questions:
 What was the purpose of the study?
 What were the research objectives?
 What methodology was used, and why?
 What was the group composition?
 What were the key findings?
 As a result, what are the recommendations?

Techniques for Summarizing
Findings
 Identifying comments that are frequently mentioned
 Evaluating rankings or "votes" occurring over the course of the project
 Grouping similar responses by meaningful subgroups (for instance,
mentions by region, age group, or company size)
 Resolving differences between groups
 Discussing messages with opposing ideas indicated perhaps by body
language
To ensure accurate evaluation of focus group reports, keep in mind several

rules of thumb:
 Avoid quantifying results; remember this is qualitative analysis.

 Look for patterns that show consistent themes
 It is important to provide quotations to support your evaluations.
 Identify which thoughts were generated through a free-flowing
discussion and which were actually aided responses.

On-line Focus Groups
 Advantages
 No geographic barriers
 Lower costs
 Fast turnaround time
 Do not have to see a moderator face-to-face
 Can reach hard-to-reach managers
 Two way interaction between moderator and the client
is possible

On-line Focus Groups
 Disadvantages
 Group dynamics are construed
 Nonverbal inputs are minimal
 Client involvement with participants is practically non-
existent
 Security - who is the person on-line?
 Attention to the topic - is the participant paying attention?
 Exposure to external stimuli - can not present product
prototypes.
 Or can we?
 Role and skill of moderator are more difficult

Depth Interviews………..
 One-on-one interviews that probe and elicit detailed
answers to questions, often using nondirective
techniques to uncover hidden motivations.
 Advantages
 No group pressure
 Respondent is focus of attention and feels important
 Respondent is highly aware and active
 Long time period encourages revealing new
information
 Can probe to reveal feelings and motivations
 Discussion is flexible and can explore tangential
issues

Depth Interviews
 Disadvantages
 Much more expensive than focus groups
 Do not get the same degree of client involvement;
clients do not want to observe single interviews
 Are physically exhausting for the moderator…
reduces the number of people that can be
interviewed in a given time period.
 Moderators do not have other group members to
help obtain reactions and to stimulate discussion.

Refernces
 http://www.experiment-
resources.com/write-a-research-
paper.html

 DATA COLLECTION
 SAMPLE
 SCHDULE
 MAILED QUESTIONNAIRE
 OBSERVATION
 DOCUMENTRY SOURCE

 SAMPLE
 Survey can be conducted by two methods 1.
Census method 2. Sample method.
 Census method of investigation:
 In India, census of population is conducted after
the interval of every 10 years. In the census of
1951, 07 lakh people visited 644 lakh houses.
These 7 lakh people were consisting 6 lakh
enumerators, one lakh supervisor. Nearly, 15
crore rupees was spent on the exercise.
 Sample method
 A small group is taken as representative of
whole population. Population is also
known as universe.
 Basis of sampling
Homogeneity in complexity
Possibility of representative selection
 Absolute accuracy not essential
 Importance of sampling in social research
 Advantages of sampling
Time saving
Money saving
Detailed study
Accuracy
Administrative convenience
 Possibility of the use of census method

 Disadvantages of sampling
Chances of bias
Difficulties in representative sampling
Need for specialized knowledge
Difficulties in sticking to sample

 TYPES OF SAMPLING
Random Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Quota Sampling
Multi stage Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Self selected Sampling
 ( Vaj,pg-151)
Random: It is used when methods of
selection assures that individual has equal
chance of selection. It is not same as chance
sampling. It is also called proportionate
sampling. It is more suitable in a
homogeneous or large group. A random
sampling can be based on any one of the
following methods:-
Lottery method
Tippett’s numbers
Selecting from sequential list
Grid System
 Precautions in random sampling:
Population should be clearly defined
Different units should be of equal size.
Units should be independent of each other.
Every unit should be accessible.

 Advantages of random sampling:
Free from bias
Simple
Assessment of sampling error can be done
 Disadvantages:
Too widely dispersed cases
It is difficult to have catalogued universe

Purposive sampling: When samples are selected
purposively or deliberately. Following are the features of
purposive sampling.
The aim of purposive sampling is to gain representative sample.
• Keep different variables in the same proportion
• Frequency distribution of two may be same
• Combined average of sample unit is the same as universe average.
• Validity of the two samples and universe is the same. (Note: Except one rest
of the methods require statistical analysis.)

Selector must have complete idea about the nature of universe.
Selector should try to keep himself away from biasing.
Stratified sampling: It is combination of random sampling as well as purposive
sampling. Under this approach, whole universe is divided in to strata and then
samples are selected from strata.
 Kinds of stratified sampling
Proportional stratified sampling
Disproportional stratified sampling
Stratified weighted sampling
 Advantages of stratified sampling
Sampler get more control over sample
Proper stratification has been made using fewer items
Replacement of cases can be done too easily
 Disadvantages
Bias may be caused due to improper stratification
Attempt to make proportion deliberately is very difficult to achieve
Difficulty may be experienced in putting a particular case in a stratum

Quota: This is a special form of stratified
sampling. According to the method, universe
is divided into strata and than number to be
selected from stratus is decided. This number
is in fact quota. Field workers are usually
asked to fix up quota.

Multi-stage: This method is adopted in case of large
area. This method is a combination of random and
stratified sampling.
Convenience: As it is clear from the name, convenience
sampling is selection of sample according to
convenience. It is usually known as an unsystematic,
careless, opportunistic form of sampling. It is used in
case like:
Universe is not clearly defined
Sampling unit is not clear
A complete source list is not available
Self selected: In cases when people select a
sample on their own is known as self-selected
sample. E.g. tourism researcher selecting
tourists for analysis of their problems in India.

 HOW TO SELECT A SAMPLE
 Defining universe
Definite and indefinite
Real or hypothetical
 Sampling Units
 Source List

 SIZE OF SAMPLE
 Factor AFFECTING THE SIZE OF SAMPLE
Homogeneity or heterogeneity of universe
Number of classes proposed
Nature of study
Practical considerations
Standard of accuracy
Size of the questionnaire or schedule
Nature of cases to be contacted
Type of sampling used
 Size of sample depends on variability in pilot survey.

 PROBLEM OF A REPRESETATIVE SAMPLE
 Biased sample
Too small size
Purposive selection
Imperfect stratification
Incomplete source list
Replacement or undue losses cases
Selection of field worker
Convenience sampling
Faulty method of drawing random sample
Nature of phenomena
 TESTINGH RELIABILITY OF SAMPLE
 By drawing parallel sample
 By comparing the measurement of the sample with those of
the universe if known
 By drawing sub-sample from the main sample
 USE OF SAMPLE IN SOCIAL RESEARCH
 As early as 1754, the census of population of England was
conducted by this method.
 Questions:
 What are the main advantages of sampling in tourism?
 Define random sampling?
 SCHEDULE
 The only difference between questionnaire
and schedule has to be used in direct
interview.
 The main difference between two is
regarding the method of collecting data
through them.

 PURPOSE:
 To provide a standardized tool for observation
or interview in order to attain objectivity. Data
received is perfectly comparable.
 Schedule act as memory tickler.
 Used to keep memory refreshed.
 Used to facilitate the work of tabulation and
analysis.

 KINDS OF SCHEDULE
 Observation schedule
 Rating schedule
 Document schedule
 Interview schedule
 (Vaj. pg-171)

 Essentials of good schedule
 Accurate Communication
 Accurate response
 Physical schedule should be attractive
 Clearly worded
 Adequate/ relevant information
 Subjected to statistical analysis
 (Vaj. pg-172)
 PROCEDURE FOR FORMING SCHEDULE
 1st step: what are different aspects of
problem
 2nd step: what information is necessary for a
valid generalization on each aspect
 3rd step: Framing actual questions
 4th step: general layout of schedule
 5th step: Testing validity
GENERAL FORMS AND LAYOUT OF SCHEDULE
Paper
Size of schedule: Small size is preferable
Margin: Margin of ¾” on one side and nearly 1/5” or 1/6” on the other side should be left out.
Spacing:
Printing: May be printed or cyclostyled
Sue of pictures: Sometimes pictures are used
Content
Introductory part
Name and heading
Serial or case number
General Information
Place of interview
Date and time of interview
Main schedule
Instructions to the interviewer or observer
Types of questions
Open end questions
What, do you think, are the main causes of present indiscipline among students?
Structured questions
What is your age?
Dichotomous questions
Multiple choice questions or cafeteria questions
What type of career do you propose to choice?
• Business
• Industry
• Govt. Service
• Vocation
• Professions
• Any other
Leading questions
Ambiguous questions
Ranking Item questions
Nature of questions to be given
Few, short, clearly worded questions
Tabulation plan must be kept in mind
Direct bearing upon the problem
Indirect questions may be asked to get correct reply
Questions facilitating cross check may be asked
Questions to be avoided
Too long
Complex
Personal
Causing suspicion
Embarrassing
Leading
Pertains no subject matter of enquiry
Questions on universally accepted norms
Questions likely to yield inaccurate response ( Vaj,pg181)
Language
Technical terms
Unusual or Native words that are not common
Words carrying emotional connotation
Ambiguous words( Vaj,pg182)
Sequence of questions
Simple and uncontroversial questions first
Interest catching questions in the beginning
Questions seeking advice may be given in the beginning
While schedule may be taken as a unit
Change in topic should be very smooth( Vaj,pg183)

 PILOT STUDIES AND PRETESTS
 Pilot studies and pretests are necessary measures for framing a
prefect schedule. A pilot study is undertaken before a schedule or
questionnaire is drafted. (Vaj, pg183)
 When schedule is prepared, it is tested once again to find if any
discrepancy have been left out.
 Following are the main criteria of a defective schedule
 A large proportion of do not know answers
 In case of questionnaire refusal to return it.
 Comments of interviewers or respondents
 Defects of sampling-some part might have been left out altogether.
 Similar type of people giving different replies.
 Answers differing from the known answers.
 ORGANISATION OF INTERVEWS
THROUGH SCHDULES
 The following steps are generally taken to
organize interview through schedule:-
Selection of interviewer
Selection and training o field workers
Method of carrying on interview
Testing the validity of replies
Editing the schedules
 (Vaj, pg184)
 Selection of interviewer
 Selection and training o field workers
Honesty
Tactfulness
Patience
Smartness
Interest in Research
Unbiased and scientific outlook
Vigilance
Knowledge about the general nature of the class study
Training method in study
 Method of carrying on interview
Approaching the respondent
Getting Response
Getting correct reply
Checking the schedule returned by field worker
 Testing the validity of replies
 Editing the schedules
Checking the schedules
Checking the entries
Dirty and badly written schedules
Coding
 (Vaj, pg-193)
 ADVANTAGES OF SCHDULES
 Response is higher than mailed questionnaires
 The field worker is personally present to remove any doubt
 Field worker may recreate proper environment
 Personal contact may remove any defect in sampling
 LIMITATIONS IN THE METHOD OF SCHDULE
 Costly affair
 Cerates administrative problems
 Presence of field worker may be the source of bias
 (Vaj,pg-195)

 MAILED QUESTIONNAIRE

 TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Structured
Non-structured
 FORM OF QUESTIONNAIRE
 It is similar to interview schedule.
 Size of questionnaire
 Appearance
 Clarity
 Sequence of questions
 Catching interest
 PRESENTING QUIESTIONNAIRE
It is defecting, itf large number of
questionnaires are not returned.
The people among whom it is circulated
should be perfectly representative of the
sample

 PROBLEMS OF RESPONSE IN
QUESTIONNAIRE
Factors affecting response
Prestige of sponsoring group
Importance of the problem under study
Nature of questionnaire
Nature of reaction
Size of questionnaire
Sequence of questions
Appeal
Inducement to reply
 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF
QUESTINNAIRE
Ambiguity in questionnaire
Sampling bias
Exclusion of uneducated persons
Selectivity of response

 Advantages of questionnaire method
Low cost
Large coverage
Repetitive information
Greater validity
Rapidity

 Limitations
Unreliability
Incomplete entries
Difficult to understand bad handwriting
Poor responses
Possibility of manipulated replies
Lack of personal contact
Impossibility of a deeper problem

 INTERVIEW
 It may be regarded as a systematic
method by which a person enters more or
less imaginatively into the life of a
comparative stranger. (Pauline Young in
vaj, pg211)

 PURPOSE OF INTERVIEW
 KIND OF INTERVIEWS
Structured interview
Unstructured interview
Focused interview
 Repetitive interview

 Preparation for interview
Understanding the problem
Interview guide
Selection of cases
Use of panel
Information about interviewee
Prior appointment

 Techniques of interview
Establish contact
Starting
Securing rapport
Recall
Probe questions
Encouragement
Guiding the interview
Recording
Closing the interview
Reporting
 Role of interviewer
Good and pleasing personality
 Problems in getting response
Ask respondent to narrate the incidence
Allow him to go on in his own way
Encourage him to follow time order
 Validity of interview
 Limitations of interview
Conducting interview require specialized knowledge
Influenced b emotions
 Importance of interview
 OBSERVATION
 Probably the oldest method used by man in scientific investigation.
 Kinds of observation
Participant
Non-participant
Non-controlled
Controlled
Control over phenomena
Control over Observation
Detailed observation plan
Use of schedule
Use of mechanical appliances
Use of sociometric scale
Use of hypothesis
Team observation
Use of control group

 Organization of field observation studies
 Limitations of observation
Some of the occurrences may not be open to
observation
Not all occurrences open to observation can
be observed when observer is at hand
Not all occurrences lend themselves to study
observation techniques

 Importance of observation in Tourism
Simplest method
Useful in framing hypothesis
Greater accuracy
More convincing results
Test of validity
A common method for all sciences
 Questions:
What re the methods of field observation?
( Vaj, 249)
 What is a document
 Kinds of documents
Personal documents
Self justification
Exhibitionism
Desire, sometimes compulsive
Relief from tension
Monetary gain
Assignment-request to write
Scientific interest
Desire for immortality
Public records
Unpublished records
Published data
• Limitations of published data
 Reliability of data
 Suitability of data
 Lack of direct contact

 STATISTICAL MEASURES
 Classification
 Tabulation
Classification
• Definition
• Objects
 To express the complex scattered, haphazard into consie and
intelligible form
 To make the points of similarity and dis-similarity
 To affrod comparative study
 To avoid strain on mind in understanding the significance
 To display underlying unity of items
• Characteristics of good classification
 No overlapping
 Total different classes should be equal
 Classification should be according to the purpose of
enquiry

• Kinds of classification
 Qualitative
 According to attributes
 Variables
• Statistical series
 Array
 Discrete
 Continuous

• Inclusive or exclusive methods
• Distinction between discrete and continuous series
• Size of class interval
 Even distribution within class
 Regular sequence of frequencies
 Class interval should be equeal for all classes
 Total range of measurement
 Yule formula for class boundary
 Classes with zero frequency
 General class intervals

• Kinds of statistical tables
 General purpose tables
 Summary tables
 Simple and complex tables

 Totals
 Demarcation of columns
 Foot notes
• Essential qualities of a good table
 Attractive
 Manageable size
 Comparable
 Clear
 Suitable for the prupose
 Scientifically prepared

• Method of tabulation
 Hand tabulation
 Mechanical tabulation
 Codfing entries
 Puching of tabulation cards
 Sorting the cards
• Advantage of tabulation
• Limitations of tabulation

 Report Writing:
Introduction
 A report is not a complete description of what
has been done during the period of survey. It is
only a brief statement of most significant facts
that are necessary for understanding the
generalizations down by the investigator.
 Report also creates ground for hypothesis and
lead to further research on the same or allied
problems.
Purpose
Contents-purpose of study
• Methodology
 Generally questionnaire or schedules are used for
the purpose of study.
• Organization of survey
• Analysis
• Appendices
• Footnotes
• Suggestions
Problems of communication

 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCIES
 AVERAGE
 The average is sometimes described as a number which is typical of
the whole group (Leabo). An average value is single value within the
range of the data that is used to represent all of the values in the
series. Since, an average is somewhere within the range of the data,
it is also called measure of central tendency (Croxton & Cowden).
 Types of average
 Arithmetic mean
 Median
 mode
 Geometric mean
 Harmonic mean
 Mean:
 Median:
 It refers to the middle value in a distribution. It splits the observations
into two halves. It is also called positional average. The term positions
refer to the place of value. For example expenditure of five tourists is
Rs. 900, 950, 1020, 1200 and 1280. Median is 1020.
 Calculation of median:
Arrange data in ascending or descending order of magnitude.
In a group of an odd number of values such as 7 add 1 to the total number of values
and divide by 2. Thus 7+1 would be 8 which divided by 2 gives – the number of the
value starting at either end of the numerically arranged group will be the median value.
In a large group the same method may be followed. In group of 199 items the middle
value would be 100th value. This would be determined by (199+1)/2. In the form
formula:
 Med*=Size of (n+1) / 2 item.
Median
 Refers to the middle value in a distribution.

 e.g. If income of five employees is Rs.
900, 950, 1020, 1200, and 1280 the
median would be 1020.
 In case of even number of distribution:
 e.g. income of 6 employees as 900, 950,
1020, 1200, 1280, 1300
 Median= (1020+1200)/2=2220/2=1110
 Mode
 The mode or modal value is that value in a
series of observations which occurs with
the greatest frequency. For example, the
mode of the series 3, 5,8,5,4,5,9,3, would
be 5.

 Locating mode graphically:
Draw a histogram of the given data
Draw two lines diagonally in the inside of the
model class bar, starting from each upper corner of
the bar to the upper corner of the adjacent bar
Draw a perpendicular line from the intersection of
the two diagonal lines to the X-axis (horizontal
scale) WHICH GIVES US THE MODAL VALUE.

Merits and limitations of modes:
 Mode is the most typical and representative
value or a distribution.
 Most frequently occurring value.
 It can be used to describe qualitative
phenomena.
 It is not usually affected by extreme values.
 The value of mode can also be described
graphically.
 (Gupta, page-220)

INDEX NUMBERS
 The first index was constructed in 1764 to
compare the Italian price index.
 Index number is devices for measuring
differences in the magnitude of a group of
related variables. (Croxton & Cowden)

 Thus when we say that index number of
wholesale prices is 112 for January 2005
compared to January 2004; it means there
is net increase in the prices of wholesale
commodities to the extent of 12 percent
during the year.

 Index numbers are:-
Specialized averages
Measure the net change in a group of related
variables
Index number measure the effect of changes over
a period of time

Co-relation…
 Nothing is good or bad by comparison.
 Till now we have been talking about one
variable only, we come across many
situations involving two or more variables.
E.gf. the age of husband and wife. Rainfall
of crop of rice.

Co-relation…..
 The degree of correlation ship between
two variables is called co-relation analysis.
 Measure of correlation called correlation
co-efficient in correlation index
summarizes in one figure the direction and
degree of analysis.

Co-relation…..
 The problem analyzing relation should be

broken into three steps.
Determining whether the relationship exists
and if it does, measuring it.
Testing whether it is significant.
 Establishing the cause and effect
relations. ( Gupta)

Co-relation…..
 SIGNIFICANCE
Most of the variables show some kind of
relationship. E.g. price and supply, income
and expenditure.
Once we know that two variables are related
to each other, we can estimate value of one
variable given the value of others.
It contributes to understand economic
behaviour.
Co-relation…..
 CORELATION AND CAUSATION

Corelation helps in determining the degree of
relationship between two or more variables- it
does note tell us anything about cause and
effect relationships. By itself, it establishes co-
variance.

Co-relation…..
 TYPES
Positive or negative
Simple, partial and multiple
 Linear and non-linear( Gupta)

Co-relation…..
 METHODS
Scatter diagram
Graphic
Karl Pearson’s Co-efficient or correlation
Concurrent deviation
Method of least square

Co-relation…..
 Illustration 1: page-385 ( scatter method)

 Illustration 2: page -385 ( Graphic
method)
 Karl Pearson’s Co-efficient of Co-relation

Co-relation…..
 Also known as Person coefficient of

correlation.
 Denoted by the symbol r.
 R=∑xy/ (N*rho x*rho y)
 N= number of pairs of observation
 R=the co-relation coefficient

Co-relation…..
 This method to be applied where deviation
item is taken from actual mean.
 The value of the co-efficient of correlation
as obtained by the above formula shall
always lie between + and – 1.
 Where r=+1 means perfect positive

Co-relation…..
 Where r=-1 means perfect negative

 Where r=0 means no relationship
 Illustration 3: page-388
 ***

INDEX NUMBER…
 First index was constructed in 1764 to
compare Italian price Index.
 It is defined as barometer of economic
activity. ( Gupta)
 BASE PERIOD
 Index Number relate variables in a given
period to another period is called base
period.
INDEX NUMBER…
 UNIVARIATE INDEX:
 Index computed from single variable is
univariate index.
 COPOSITE INDEX
 Index constructed from group of variables
is known as composite index.

INDEX NUMBER…
 MAIN POINTS
 Index Numbers are specialized
averages.
 Index Number measure net change in a
group of related variables.
 Index Number measure effect of change
over a period of time.
.
INDEX NUMBER…
 USES
 Helps in framing suitable policies.
 Reveals trends and tendencies.
 Important in forecasting future
economic activity.
 Useful in deflating

INDEX NUMBER…
 PROBLEMS IN CONSTRCITUIoN OF
INDEX NUMBER
Purpose of Index
Prices must not include whole sale prices.
Selection of base period
The period against which comparisons are made.
The base period should be normal one. Not affected
by war, epidemic, earth-quake.
Should not be too distant in the past.
Fixed bas of chain base.
INDEX NUMBER…
Selection of number of items

No. of items should be determined by the purpose
for which index is constructed.
Priced Quotations
Should be those of well known places
Method of quoting the price
 (i) Money price (per unit)
 (ii) Quantity price (per unit)
INDEX NUMBER…
Choice of average
Normally arithmetic or geometric mean index
taken. ( Gupta,521)
Selection of appropriate weight
Weight means relative importance of different
items.
There are two methods of assigning weight:-
• Implicit
• Explicit

INDEX NUMBER…
Weights are of two types:
• Quantity weight: The amount of commodity produced,
distributed and consumed in the time period.
• Value weight: It combine price with quantity produced,
distributed or consumed.
Selection of appropriate formula

INDEX NUMBER…
Method of constructing Index Numbers

Index Number
• Unweighted
 Simple Aggregate
 Simple Average of Relatives
• Weighted
 Weighted aggregate
 Weighted average of relatives
Illustration 1: page-523
 Illustration 1: page-525( Gupta)

REGRESSION……
 Dictionary meaning: The act of returning
back.
 It is also called as estimating line in spite
of regression line by present day writers.
( Gupta, pg-436)

REGRESSION……
 If we know that the yield of rice and rainfall
are closely related we may find out the
amount of rain required to achieve a
certain production figure. Regression
analysis reveals average relationship
between two variables and this makes
possible estimation or prediction.

REGRESSION……
 The term regression was first used by Sir
Francis Galton (1822-1911) in 1877 while
studying height of father and son.
 It is used to predict the unknown values
of one variable from known value of
other variable.

REGRESSION……
 The term linear means that an equation of
a straight line of the form y=a+bx. Where
‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants, is used to
describe the average relationship that
exists between two variables. ( Gupta)
 USES
Provides values of dependent variables from
independent variables.

REGRESSION……
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CO-

RELATION AND REGRESSIONS
Coefficient means the measure of co
variability between x and y. The objective of
regression is to study nature of relationship.
Correlation is simply a tool of ascertaining the
degree of relationship between two variables
and therefore, we can not say that one
variable is the cause and other is the effect.

REGRESSION……
There may be non-sense correlation between

two variables, which may occur merely due to
chance.
Correlation coefficient is independent of
change of scale or origin.( Gupta)



CHI-SQUARE TEST AND
GOODNESS OF FIT..
 The concept of chi square and it’s

application was introduced by karl
Pearson. He introduced first time the
nature of Chi –square distribution.
( Bajpai,pg-381)

CHI-SQUARE TEST AND
GOODNESS OF FIT
 Chi-square is a measure of degree to
which a series of observed frequencies
deviates from corresponding theoretical or
hypothetical frequencies. ( Bajpai,pg-381)
 The magnitude of discrepancy between
theory and observation is defined by the
quantity X (square). ( Bajpai,pg-381)
 Illustration1: page381 ( Bajpai)
ANOVA (ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE)…
 This technique is used when multiple

sample cases are involved. ( Kothari, pg-
300)
 The significance of the difference between
two samples can be judged from t test or z
test. But, difficulty arises when we have to
examine the significance of the difference
amongst more than two sample means at
the same time.
ANOVA (ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE)…
 The ANOVA technique enables us to
perform this simultaneous test and as
such is considered to be an important tool
of analysis in the hands of a researcher.
Using this technique one can draw
inference about whether the samples have
been drawn from population having the
same mean. ( Kothari, pg-300)

ANOVA (ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE)…
 The ANOVA technique is useful in the
context of all those situations where we
want to compare more than two
populations such as in comparing the yield
of crop from several varieties of seeds, the
gasoline mileage of four automobiles, the
smoking habit of five groups of university
students. ( Kothari, pg-300)

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS…
 A TECHNIQUE WHICH
SIMULTENEOUSLY ANALYSE MORE
THAN TWO VARIABLES.
 Multivariate techniques are empirical.
( Kothari, pg-368)
 Deals with complex situation. ( Kothari, pg-
370)

 The basic objective underlying multivariate
techniques is to represent a collection of
massive data in a simplified way. ( Kothari, pg-
370)
 In other words, multivariate technique transforms
a mass of observations into smaller number of
composite scores in such a way that they may
reflect as much information as possible
contained in the raw data obtained concerning
research study. ( Kothari, pg-370)
 Mathematically, multivariate technique
consists in “forming a liner composite
vector in a vector subspace, which can be
representated in terms of projection of a
vector into certain specified subspace.
( Kothari, pg-370)

 CLASSIFICATION; ( Kothari, pg-370)
 Dependence method
 Is it metric Yes  Multiple regressions
 Is it metric No Multiple discriminate
analysis
 Are they metric  Yes  Multivariate
Analysis of variance
 Are they metric  No canonical Analysis
 Independence method
 Are inputs metric?  Yes  Factor
Analysis/ Cluster Analysis/ Metric MDS

 Are inputs metric?  No Non-metric
MDS/ latent Structure Analysis


Tests
 T-TEST
 SAMPLE size is less than 30.


 Z-TEST
 Sample size more than 30.


SCALING
• Nominal data
• Ordinal data
• Interval data
• Ratio data
SCALING…
 Nominal data
 Nominal data are numerical in name only.
They do not share any properties of
numbers.

SCALING..
 Ordinal data
 To place events in order.
E.g. student’s rank in a class.
Ordinal measures have no absolute value.
Implies greater than or less than without being

able to state how much greater or smaller.

SCALING..
 Interval data
 E.g. Fahrenheight scale.
 Zero is arbitrary.
 One can say that an increase in temp. as an
increase from 600 to 700, but one can not say
that the temp. of 600 is twice as warm as the
temp. 300 both numbers are dependent on the
fact that zero on the scale is set arbitrary as the
freezing point of water.
SCALING…
 Ratio data
Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of
measurement.

FACTOR ANALYSIS..
 It is a technique applicable when there is a

systematic interdependence among a set
of observed or manifest variables and the
researcher is interested in finding out
something more fundamental or latent
which creates this commonality.

FACTOR ANALYSIS…
 It seeks to resolve large set of measured

variables in terms of relatively few
categories, known as factors ( based on
correlation between variables) and factors
so derived may be treated as new
variables ( often termed as latent
variables) and their value derived by
summing the value of the original variables
which have been grouped into the factor.
methods
The centroid method

The principal component method
The maximum likelihood method

Symbols
H0 Nul Hypothesis
r Correlation
rho Standard deviation
α Type I
µ Mean

Level of significance
 When the sampling results have less

than .05 probability of occurring if H0 is
true. In other words 5% level of
significance means that researcher is
willing to take as much as a 5% risk of
rejecting the null hypothesis when it
happens to true.

Type I and Type II errors
 Type I error means rejection of hypothesis

which should have been accepted. Type II
error means accepting the hypothesis
which should have been rejected. Type I is
denoted by alpha (α). Type II error is
denoted by beta (β).

-- Decisions
-- Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 ( true) Correct decisions Type I error
H0 ( false) Type II error Correct decisions

Misc.
 Two tailed and One tailed tests

Questions…
Differentiate between method and methodology?
What do you understand by hypothesis?
Explain the meaning and significance of research
design.
What are the steps involved in research process?
Differentiate between metric and non-metric data?
Illustrate using an example where focus group as a
data collection technique can be used?
What is factor analysis?
What is sampling?

questions
List down various components of a final research
report?
Differentiate between probability and non-
probability sampling method?
Why is sampling considered as an important
aspect of the research process?
What do you understand by cost-benefit analysis?

Books suggested
 Business and Economics; By: Anderson,
Sweeny and Williams
 Business Statistics; By: Ken Black
 C. R. Kothari
 Bajpai
 Verma J.P.
 Gupta S.P.

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BUSINESS RESEARCH

Dr. Saurabh Dixit

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 3

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 4

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 5

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 6

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 7

 Scope of Research in Tourism

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 9

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 10

 Collect vision, mission and punch line of

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 11

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 12

 What are benefits to a PGDM student?

 Do I have scope in this field?

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 13

 GDS - market Survey

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 14

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 15

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 16

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 18

 Systematic study of the subject

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 19

 The word research derives from the

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 20

 Olin Levi Warner Research helping the

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 21

Business Research deals with the business

phenomena. It studies behaviours of

employees as members of business entity,

and their feeling responses, attitude under

 Business Research is carried on both for

discovering new facts and verification of

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 23

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 24

 Curiosity about unknown

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 25

 Existence of cause and effect relationship

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 26

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 27

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 28

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 29

 What is scientific attitude?

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 30

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 31

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 32

 A hypothesis is a tentative generalization,

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 33

 Theory is elaborate hypothesis.

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 34

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 35

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 36

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 38

Memories/ Autobiographies/ Life Histories and

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 39

Official Published Data

Other Un-published data

Information from informants

Information from witness

Dr. Saurabh Dixit, IITTM, Gwalior, M.P. 41

 A brief or condensed statement giving a

general view of some subject.

 A compendium of heads or short